The Law Code of Yājñavalkya 1.7: atha bhakṣyābhakṣyaprakaraṇam

Beginning with 'Not for wealth that obstructs Vedic study' (1.129), having explained the observances of the graduate for a Brahmin, he now explains the duties common to the twice-born:

Unconsecrated food, meat not for sacrifice, [food] mixed with hair or insects,
sour food, stale food, food remnants, food touched by a dog, food looked at by an outcaste,

food touched by a menstruating woman, food proclaimed aloud, and substitute food one should avoid;
as well as [food] smelled by a cow, bird remnants, and that touched intentionally by a foot.

'Unconsecrated' means what is given with contempt to one worthy of respect. 'Meat not for sacrifice' means that which is prepared for oneself alone, outside of the danger to life to be mentioned later, and that which is not the remnant of worship offered to deities and so on. 'Mixed with' means united with hair, insects, and the like. That which is not sour by nature, but turns sour merely by being left overnight, or by contact with other substances and the passage of time—that is 'sour food', except curd and the like, since Śaṅkha records: 'One should not eat the food of a greater sinner, nor cooked twice, nor sour, nor stale, except for condiments, sugar candy, fermented vinegars, curds, molasses, and preparations of wheat and barley flour.' 'Stale' means kept overnight. 'Remnants' means left over after someone has eaten. 'Touched by a dog' means touched by a hound. 'Looked at by an outcaste' means gazed upon by an outcaste or the like. 'Touched by a menstruating woman' means touched by a woman in her courses; the mention of a menstruating woman is an indicative mention for a Caṇḍāla and others, since Śaṅkha records: 'One should avoid food touched by an impure person, an outcaste, a Caṇḍāla, a Pulkasa, a menstruating woman, one with deformed nails, or a leper.' That which is given after calling out 'Who will eat?' is 'food proclaimed aloud.' That which is given under the pretext of belonging to someone else, though belonging to another, is 'substitute food'; as [in the text]:

'A Shudra who gives a Brahmin's food, and a Brahmin who gives a Shudra's food—
both these are persons whose food must not be eaten; having eaten it, one should perform the Cāndrāyaṇa penance.'

In the reading 'paryācāntam' (rinsed around), it means that in which the rinsing, that is, the taking of mouthfuls of water, has been completed; that must not be eaten. This is what is meant: after taking a mouthful of water and before sipping water for purification (ācamana), one must not eat. In the reading 'pārśvācāntam' (one nearby having rinsed), when one seated adjacent in the same row has sipped water, one must not eat, unless there is a division by ashes, water, or the like. 'One should avoid' is connected with each item. Likewise, 'smelled by a cow' means inhaled upon by a bovine. 'Bird remnants' means eaten or tasted by a bird such as a crow. One should avoid what is 'touched by a foot' intentionally with one's foot.

He states an exception regarding stale food:

Stale food smeared with oil or clarified butter may be eaten even if kept for a long time;
and even without oil or clarified butter, preparations of wheat, barley, and cow’s milk [may be eaten].

Edible food that is stale, if mixed with an oily substance such as clarified butter, may be eaten even if it has stood for a long time. Preparations of wheat, barley, and cow's milk—such as rolled cakes (maṇḍaka), roasted barley flour (saktu), inspissated milk (kilāṭa), and curd-curry (kūrcikā)—may be eaten even without oil or clarified butter, though kept for a long time, provided they have not undergone fermentation; as Vasiṣṭha records: 'One should avoid cakes, parched grains, barley porridge, roasted barley meal, barley-broth, sesame-oil, milk-rice, and greens, when they have turned sour' (VaDh 14.37).

One should avoid the milk of a cow in heat, one whose ten days [after calving] have not elapsed, or one that has lost her calf;
and [the milk of] a camel, a single-hoofed animal, a woman, a wild animal, and a sheep.

A cow that is mated with a bull is a *saṃdhinī*. For there is the recollection in the *Trikāṇḍī*: 'One should know a barren cow as *vaśā*, and one mounted by a bull as *saṃdhinī*.' And one that is milked after skipping a milking time, or one that is made to yield milk with another's calf, is also a *saṃdhinī*. An *anirdaśā* is one that has calved but whose ten days have not passed. An *avatsā* is one whose calf has died. A cow that is a *saṃdhinī*, an *anirdaśā*, or an *avatsā*—one should avoid the milk, that is, the fluid, of these cows. The mention of *saṃdhinī* is indicative of both a *saṃdhinī* and one that gives birth to twins. As Gautama says: 'And of a flowing-milked cow, one giving birth to twins, and a *saṃdhinī*' (GDh 17.25). A *syandinī* is one whose milk flows spontaneously from the udder. A *yamalasū* is one giving birth to twins. In the same way, one should avoid the milk of a goat and a buffalo within ten days of calving, from the recollection of Vasiṣṭha: 'Of cows, buffaloes, and goats that have not passed ten days' (VaDh 14.35). Because of the mention of 'milk', its products such as curd and the like are also forbidden. For when meat is forbidden, it is not reasonable that its products would not be forbidden. But when a product is forbidden, the primary substance is not forbidden; thus, by the prohibition of milk, dung, urine, and the like are not prohibited. *Auṣṭra* means milk, urine, and so forth derived from a camel. 'Single-hoofed' are mares and the like; what originates from them is *aikaśapha*. What comes from a woman is *straiṇa*. The mention of 'woman' is indicative of all two-teated females other than the goat, from the recollection of Śaṅkha: 'The milk of all two-teated females is unfit to be consumed, except for the goat.' Forest-born are wild animals; what belongs to them is wild (*āraṇyaka*) milk, except for that of the buffalo,

'and of all wild animals, except for the buffalo'
(MDh 5.9)

from this statement. What is born of a sheep is *āvika*. The word 'one should avoid' is connected with each item. By using derivative suffixes such as *auṣṭra*, any product whatsoever such as milk, urine, and so forth is permanently forbidden, from the recollection of Gautama: 'The milk of sheep, camels, and single-hoofed animals is always undrinkable' (GDh 17.25). || 1.170

Oblation meant for a deity, drumstick, red tree-resins, and those from incisions,
meat of animals not ritually dedicated, and mushrooms growing from excrement.

'Meant for a deity' means prepared for the sake of an offering of tribute. 'Oblation' (*haviḥ*) means that which is prepared for a fire offering, prior to the oblation. 'Śigru' is the sobhāñjana tree. 'Red' refers to tree-resins. 'Arising from incisions' refers to those produced by cutting a tree, even if not red. As Manu says:

'Red tree-resins and those arising from incisions.'
(MDh 5.6)

By the mention of 'red', asafoetida, camphor, and the like are not forbidden. 'Meat of animals not ritually dedicated' means the meat of an animal not offered in a sacrifice. 'Growing from excrement' means tandulīyaka and other greens that sprout from feces containing seeds eaten by humans and others. 'Kavaka' means mushrooms. The word 'one should avoid' is connected with each. || 1.171

Carnivorous birds, the watercock, the parrot, pecking birds, the lapwing,
the crane, single-hoofed animals, swans, and all village-dwelling birds.

'Carnivorous' means those whose nature is to eat raw meat. 'Birds' means vultures and the like. 'Dātyūha' is the cātaka. 'Śuka' is the parrot. 'Pecking birds' (*pratuda*) are hawks and the like, because they strike and eat with the beak. A 'ṭiṭṭibha' is an imitator of that sound [a lapwing]. A 'sārasa' is the lakṣmaṇa crane. 'Single-hoofed' are horses and the like. Swans are well known. 'Village-dwelling' are pigeons and the like. One should avoid these carnivorous birds and the rest. || 1.172

The pond heron, the diver-bird, the ruddy shelduck, the heron, the egret, scratching birds,
and rice-sesame porridge, fried barley pastry, milk rice, cakes, and pastry fried in oil [prepared] in vain.

A 'koyaṣṭi' is the krauñca. A 'plava' is a water-fowl. A 'cakrāhva' is the ruddy shelduck. The heron and egret are well known. 'Scratching birds' (*viṣkira*), because they scatter with their claws and eat, are taken to mean partridges and the like, since quail, peafowl, and the like are edible, and the domestic fowl is prohibited simply because it is a village-dweller. One should avoid these, the pond heron and the rest. 'In vain', that is, prepared without reference to a deity or the like; one should avoid rice-sesame porridge, fried barley pastry, milk rice, cakes, and pastry fried in oil. 'Kṛsara' is boiled rice prepared with sesame and mung bean. 'Saṃyāva' is a specific cooked dish called utkarikā made with milk, jaggery, clarified butter, and so on. 'Pāyasa' is rice cooked with milk. 'Apūpa' is a wheat preparation cooked without fat. 'Śaṣkulī' is a wheat preparation cooked in fat. Although the prohibition of kṛsara and the rest is established by 'One should not cook food for oneself' (YDh 1.104), this restatement is for the purpose of indicating the gravity of the penance. || 1.173

The sparrow, together with the raven, the osprey, the woodpecker,
web-footed birds, wagtails, and unknown beasts and birds.

A 'kalaviṅka' is a house sparrow. Even though its prohibition is established by being a village-dweller, it is restated because it moves in both [village and forest]. A 'kākola' is a raven. A 'kurara' is an osprey. A 'rajjudālaka' is a woodpecker. 'Web-footed' means having feet shaped like a web; this restatement of swans is made because there are also swans that are not web-footed. A 'khañjarīṭa' is a wagtail. 'Unknown beasts and birds' means those that are unknown by species. One should avoid these, the sparrow and the rest. || 1.174

Blue jays, red-legged birds, slaughterhouse meat, dried meat,
and fish—having eaten [these] intentionally, one should observe a fast for three days.

'Cāṣa' is the Indian roller [or blue jay]. 'Red-legged birds' are the kādamba geese and the like. 'Slaughterhouse meat' (*sauna*) is meat coming from a slaughterhouse, abandoned by a butcher, even of edible animals. 'Vallūra' is dried meat. 'Fish' means aquatic creatures. One should avoid these, the blue jays and the rest. By the word 'and' (*ca*), [one should also avoid] nālikā, hemp, mushrooms, safflower, and so on,

'Nālikā, hemp, mushrooms, safflower, bottle gourd, and those produced from excrement,
water-chestnut, kanduka, eggplant, and kovidāra—these one should avoid.'
So it is said.

Likewise,

'Flowers and fruits that have grown out of season,
and whatever is unnatural, one should scrupulously avoid.'

Likewise, because of the traditional text: "One should avoid the fruits of the banyan, plakṣa, aśvattha, kapittha, nīpa, and citron." Having intentionally consumed these aforementioned items beginning with the milk of a cow in heat, one should fast for three nights. But if done unintentionally, for a day and a night, because of the traditional text of Manu: "For the rest, one should fast for a day" (MDh 5.20). Furthermore, as for what is stated by Śaṅkha: "Upon consuming a crane, a heron, a swan, a plava duck, a cakravāka, a kāraṇḍava duck, a house sparrow, a dove, a pigeon, a pale parrot, a maina, a sarus crane, a lapwing, an owl, a heron, a red-legged bird, a blue jay, a bhāsa bird, a crow, a cuckoo, an emerald dove, a fowl, or a green pigeon, one should drink barley gruel boiled with cow's urine for twelve nights without food," that is to be understood as applying to prolonged habituation, to an intentional act, or to consuming them all together. || 1.175

Having eaten an onion, a dung-eating pig, a mushroom, a domestic cock, / a garlic, or a leek, one should perform the cāndrāyaṇa penance.

"An onion" (palāṇḍu) is a thick-bulbed shoot resembling garlic. "A dung-eating pig" (viḍvarāha) is a village swine. "A mushroom" (chatrāka) is an umbrella-shaped fungus (sarpachatra). "A domestic cock" (grāmakukkuṭa) is well known. "A garlic" (laśuna) is rasona, having a small, white bulb and stem. "A leek" (gṛñjana) is a small reddish bulb resembling garlic. Having eaten—that is, consumed—these six once intentionally, one should perform the cāndrāyaṇa penance whose characteristics will be explained. The mention here of the domestic cock and mushroom, which were already prohibited earlier, is for the sake of assigning to them the same expiation as for onions and the rest. But in the case of prolonged habituation undertaken intentionally:

"Having knowingly eaten a mushroom, a dung-eating pig, garlic, a domestic cock, / an onion, or a leek, a twice-born falls." (MDh 5.19)

So it is stated by Manu. In the case of repeated unintentional consumption:

"Having unknowingly eaten these six, one should perform the kṛcchra sāntapana penance," (MDh 5.20)

as will be stated in the third chapter,

"or the yaticāndrāyaṇa penance," (MDh 5.20)

so it should be viewed. But in the case of repeated unintentional consumption, Śaṅkha states: "Upon consuming garlic, onion, leek, a dung-eating pig, a domestic cock, or a water chestnut, one should drink milk for twelve nights." || 1.176

Among five-clawed animals, the porcupine, the monitor lizard, the tortoise, the hedgehog,

and the hare are edible; and among fish indeed, the lion-snouted fish and the rohita,

as well as the pāṭhīna, the rājīva, and scaly fish [are edible] for the twice-born.

"Sedhā" is a porcupine. "Godhā" is a large animal resembling a chameleon (monitor lizard). "Kacchapa" is a turtle. "Śallaka" is a hedgehog. "Śaśa" (hare) is well known. Among five-clawed animals such as dogs, cats, monkeys, and so on, these beginning with the porcupine are edible. Because of the word "and" (ca), the rhinoceros is also included. As Gautama says: "The five-clawed animals [that may be eaten] are the hare, the hedgehog, the porcupine, the monitor lizard, the rhinoceros, and the tortoise" (GDh 17.27). As Manu also says:

"The porcupine, the hedgehog, the monitor lizard, the rhinoceros, the tortoise, and the hare— / these they have declared edible among the five-clawed animals, as well as [animals] with teeth in only one jaw, except the camel." (MDh 5.18)

As for the inedibility stated by Vasiṣṭha in "There is dispute, however, concerning the rhinoceros" (VaDh 14.47), that applies to instances other than a śrāddha, because of

"What is offered with rhinoceros meat in rites for the ancestors becomes inexhaustible,"

the revelation of that result being seen in the case of a śrāddha. Likewise, among fish, those beginning with the lion-snouted fish are edible. "Lion-snouted" (siṃhatuṇḍa) means having a face like a lion. "Rohita" is red in color. "Pāṭhīna" is called candraka (a kind of sheatfish). "Rājīva" is lotus-colored. It is "scaly" (saśalka) because it exists with scales resembling mother-of-pearl shells. And these beginning with the lion-snouted fish are edible only when enjoined,

"The pāṭhīna and the rohita are declared [edible] when appointed for offerings to gods and ancestors; / rājīvas, lion-snouted fish, and scaly fish everywhere." (MDh 5.16)

according to the traditional text of Manu. The mention of "the twice-born" is for the sake of excluding the Shudra. || 1.177

Having stated the duties of the twice-born beginning with "consecrated, meat not ritually offered" (YDh 1.167), he now states the duties of the four classes:

Therefore, listen to the rule regarding meat: both its consumption and its avoidance!

With respect to the consumption of meat that has been sprinkled with water and so forth, and the avoidance of what is other than that and prohibited, listen, O sages beginning with Sāmaśravas, to the rule in the form of a resolve such as: "I will not eat meat other than what has been sprinkled with water and so forth." || 1.178

Therein, he shows the rule concerning consumption:

In danger to life, likewise in a śrāddha, when [the meat has been] sprinkled with water, or out of a wish [to honor] twice-borns, / having duly worshipped the gods and the ancestors, one who eats meat incurs no guilt.

When, due to a lack of food or being overcome by illness, danger to life arises without the consumption of meat, then one must necessarily eat meat, because the preservation of self is enjoined: "One should protect oneself by all means" (GDh 9.34), and because death is prohibited: "Therefore indeed, one desiring heaven should not depart before [the full span of] life." Likewise, in a śrāddha, an invited guest must necessarily eat meat, because guilt is heard of in the case of non-eating:

"That man who, when appointed according to rule, does not eat meat, / after dying, attains the state of a beast for twenty-one births." (MDh 5.35)

according to the traditional text of Manu. Meat that is sprinkled with water is the remainder from an oblation of an animal intended for a sacrifice—such as the Agnīṣomīya—which has been consecrated by the Vedic ceremony called prokṣaṇa (sprinkling with water); one must eat that, because otherwise the sacrifice would not be accomplished. "Out of a wish [to honor] twice-borns" means for the sake of feeding Brahmins and for the sake of gods and ancestors; having worshipped them with what has been prepared, eating the remainder incurs no guilt. In the same way, the remainder from maintaining one's dependents [may be eaten],

"Commendable beasts and birds may be slain by Brahmins for the sake of sacrifice, / and also for the maintenance of dependents; for Agastya acted so in ancient times." (MDh 5.22)

according to the traditional text of Manu. By stating merely "incurs no guilt"—the mere absence of fault—it is shown that there is only permission regarding what remains after honoring guests and the like, not an obligatory rule as in the case of sprinkled meat and the rest. In this way, since even unprohibited animals like hares and the rest are understood to be inedible except in danger to life, it is understood that the Shudra also has authority regarding all injunctions and prohibitions connected with meat. || 1.179

Now he states a commendatory passage expressing censure regarding the consumption of that which is prohibited by the words "meat not ritually offered"—that is, meat other than that sprinkled with water:

He would dwell in a dreadful hell for days

equal to the hairs of the animal—the person of wicked conduct who slays animals contrary to the rule.

he who slays animals unlawfully, without reference to a deity or the like, shall dwell in a dreadful hell for as many days as there are hairs on that animal. In 'he slays', all eight kinds of slayers are included. As Manu says:

'The consenter, the slaughterer, the killer, the buyer and seller,
the cook, the server, and the eater—these are the slayers.'
(MDh 5.51) || 1.180

Now he states the rule regarding avoidance:

The Brahmin attains all desires and the fruit of the horse sacrifice as well,
and though living at home, becomes a sage by abstaining from meat.

He whose firm resolve is, 'I shall not consume meat except what has been consecrated by sprinkling and the like,' attains without obstacle all desires when setting out to accomplish them, because of the purity of his disposition. As Manu states:

"Whatever he meditates upon, whatever he undertakes, and wherever he finds delight, / that he attains without hindrance, he who harms nothing at all." / (MDh 5.47)

And this is a secondary fruit. He states the primary fruit: 'the fruit of the horse sacrifice likewise.' And this pertains to a year-long resolve.

"He who would sacrifice with the horse sacrifice year after year for a hundred years, / and he who would not eat meats—the meritorious fruit of the two is equal." / (MDh 5.53)

—owing to this statement of tradition by Manu. Likewise, though living at home, a Brahmin or other member of the four classes becomes venerable like a sage through the abandonment of meat. And this does not concern forbidden meat, nor does it concern meat consecrated by sprinkling and the like; rather, by residual inference, it concerns what is permitted as the remainder from the worship of guests and the like. || 1.181

Thus ends the section on what may and may not be eaten.