[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Foreign](https://indike.org/pramana/inf) › [Islamic world](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl) › [Arabic](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar) › [Encyclopaedias](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua) › [مسالك الأبصار في ممالك الأمصار](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar) › [Masaliku-l Absar (extracts)](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot) › 1 # مسالك الابصار في ممالك الامصار 1 Masáliku-l Absár (extracts) 1 - **Language:** English ### [1.1](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.1) India is a most important country, with which no other country in the world can be compared in respect of extent, riches, the numbers of its armies, the pomp and splendour displayed by the sovereign in his progresses and habitations, and the power of the empire. \* \* \* The inhabitants are remarkable for their wisdom and great intelligence; no people are better able to restrain their passions, nor more willing to sacrifice their lives, for what they consider agreeable in the sight of God. According to the information of Siraju-d din Abu-l Fath 'Umar, a lawyer, and a native of the province of Oudh, who had lived long at the court of the Sultan of Dehli, the dominions of that monarch consisted of twenty-three principal provinces. 1. Dehli. 2. Dawakir (Deogir). 3. Multan. 4. Kahran (Kuhram). 5. Samana. 6. Siwistan. 7. Uch. 8. Hasi (Hansi). 9. Sarsuti (Sirsah). 10. Ma'bar. 11. Tilank (Telingana). 12. Gujarat. 13. Badaun. 14. Oudh. 15. Kanauj. 16. Lakhnauti. 17. Bihar. 18. Karra. 19. Malwa. 20. Lahor. 21. Kalanor (Gwalior?). 22. Jajnagar. 23. Tilanj Darusamand (Telingana (?) and Dwara-samudra). ### [1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.2) According to the account of Shaikh Mubarak, the city of Dehli is the capital of the kingdom of India. Next comes Dawakir (Deogir), which was founded by the Sultan of that empire, and named by him "Kubbatu-l Islam, or the Metropolis of Islam." This place, said the Shaikh, is situated in the third climate. When I left it six years ago the buildings were not completed, and I doubt if they are yet finished, the extent it covers being so great, and the number of its intended edifices so vast. The king divided it into quarters, each of them intended for men of the same profession. Thus there was the quarter of the troops, that of the ministers and clerks, that of the Kazis and learned men, that of the shaikhs and fakirs, and that of the merchants and those who carry on trades. Each quarter was to contain within it everything necessary for its wants, mosques, minarets, markets, baths, mills, ovens, and workmen of every trade, including even blacksmiths, dyers, and curriers, so that the inhabitants should have no necessity to resort elsewhere for buying or selling, or the other requirements of life. Each quarter was to form a separate town, entirely independent of those surrounding it. I questioned the Shaikh Mubarak about the city of Dehli and the court of its sovereign, and I obtained from him the following details. "Dehli consists of several cities which have become united, and each of which has a name of its own. ### [1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.3) Dehli, which was one among them, has given its name to all the rest. It is both long and broad, and covers a space of about forty miles in circumference. The houses are built of stone and brick, and the roofs of wood. The floors are paved with a white stone, like marble. None of the houses are more than two stories high, and some only one. It is only in the palace of the Sultan that marble is used for pavement. But if I can believe the Shaikh Abu Bakr bin Khallal, this description applies only to the old houses of Dehli, for the new ones are built differently. According to the same informant, Dehli comprises an aggregate of twenty-one cities. Gardens extend on three sides of it, in a straight line for twelve thousand paces. The western side is not so furnished, because it borders on a mountain. Dehli contains a thousand colleges, one of which belongs to the Sháfi'ís, the rest to the Hanafís. In it there are about seventy hospitals, called Dáru-sh Shifá, or houses of cure. In the city, and those dependent upon it, the chapels and hermitages amount to 2,000. There are great monasteries, large open spaces, and numerous baths. The water used by the people is drawn from wells of little depth, seldom exceeding seven cubits. Hydraulic wheels are placed at their tops. The people drink rain-water, which is collected in large reservoirs constructed for that purpose, the distance across each of them being a bowshot, or even more. ### [1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.4) The chief mosque is celebrated for its minaret, which, in point of altitude, is said to have no equal in the world. If the statement of Shaikh Burhánu-d dín Bursí can be believed, the height of this part of the edifice is 600 cubits. According to Shaikh Mubárak, the palaces of the Sultán of Dehlí are exclusively occupied by the Sultán, his wives, concubines, eunuchs, male and female slaves, and mamlúks. None of the Kháns and amírs are permitted to dwell there. They make their appearance there only when they come to wait upon the Sultán, which they do twice a day, morning and afternoon. Afterwards, each one of them retires to his own house. As regards the great officers of State, those of the highest rank are called khánś, then the maliks, then the amírs, then the isfáh-sálárs (generals), and, lastly, the officers (jand). The court of the sovereign comprises eighty kháns, or even more. The army consists of 900,000 horsemen, some of whom are stationed near the prince, and the rest are distributed in the various provinces of the empire. All are inscribed in the registers of the State, and partake of the liberality of their sovereign. These troops consist of Turks, inhabitants of Khatá, Persians, and Indians. Among them are to be found athlets (pahlawán), runners, (shattár), and men of every kind. They have excellent horses, magnificent armour, and a fine costume. \* \* \* The Sultán has 3,000 elephants, which, when accoutred for battle, wear a covering of iron gilded. ### [1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.5) \* \* \* He has 20,000 Turk mamluks. \* \* \* It is not the same in India as in Egypt and Syria, where the maliks, amirs, and generals have in their service men whom they maintain out of their own resources. In India the officer has only to care for himself. As to the soldiers, the Sultán summons them for service, and they are paid from the public treasury. The sums granted to a khán, a malik, an amir, or a general, are given exclusively for his own personal maintenance. The chamberlains and other dignitaries; the military men, such as the kháns, the maliks, and the amirs, all have a rank in proportion to the importance of their employ. The isfah-sálárs (generals) have no right to approach the Sultán. It is from this class that governors and other similar functionaries are chosen. The khán has 10,000 horse under his command, the malik, 1,000; the amir, 100; and the isfah-sálár a smaller number. The kháns, maliks, amirs, and isfah-sálárs receive the revenues of places assigned to them by the treasury, and if these do not increase, they never diminish. Generally speaking, they bring in much more than their estimated value. The khán receives a grant of two lacs of tankas, each tanka being worth eight dirhams. This sum belongs to him personally, and he is not expected to disburse any part of it to the soldiers who fight under his orders. The malik receives an amount varying from 60,000 to 50,000 tankas, the amir from 40,000 to 30,000, and the isfah-sálár 20,000, or thereabouts. ### [1.6](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.6) The pay of the officer varies from 10,000 to 1,000 tankas. A mamluk receives 500 tankas, and all receive, in addition, food and raiment, and forage for their horses. Soldiers and mamlúks do not receive grants of land-revenue, but draw their pay in money from the public treasury. The officers have villages of which they receive the revenues. As this same traveller observed to me, the revenues of these lands, if they do not increase, certainly do not decrease. Some of the officers receive double, and even more than that, in excess of the estimated value of their grants. The slaves of the Sultán each receive a monthly allowance for their maintenance of two mans of wheat and rice, and a daily allowance of three sirs of meat, with all the necessary accompaniments. Besides, he receives ten tankas per month, and four suits of clothes every year. The Sultan has a manufactory, in which 400 silk-weavers are employed, and where they make stuffs of all kinds for the dresses of persons attached to the Court, for robes of honour and presents, in addition to the stuffs which are brought every year from China, 'Irak, and Alexandria. Every year the Sultan distributes 200,000 complete dresses; 100,000 in spring, and 100,000 in autumn. The spring dresses consist principally of the goods manufactured at Alexandria. Those of the autumn are almost exclusively of silk manufactured at Dehli or imported from China and 'Irak. Dresses are also distributed to the monasteries and hermitages. ### [1.7](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.7) The Sultan keeps in his service 500 manufacturers of golden tissues, who weave the gold brocades worn by the wives of the Sultan, and given away as presents to the amirs and their wives. Every year he gives away 10,000 Arab horses, of excellent breed, sometimes with saddle and bridle, sometimes without. \* \* \* \* As to the hacks which the Sultan distributes every year, their number is incalculable. He gives them in lots or by hundreds. Notwithstanding the number of horses in India, and notwithstanding the numbers annually imported, the Sultan has horses brought from all countries, and buys them at high prices for presents. These animals are consequently always dear, and yield a good profit to the horse-dealers. The Sultan has under him a naib, chosen from among the khans, who bears the title of Amriya, and enjoys, as his official appanage, a considerable province, as large as 'Irak. He also has a wazir, who has a similar large appanage. This officer has four deputies called shak, who receive 20,000 to 40,000 tankas per annum. He has four dabirs, or secretaries, each of whom receives the revenue of a large maritime town. Each of them has under his orders about 300 clerks, the lowest and worst paid of whom receives 10,000 tankas a year. Some of the highest rank have towns and villages, and some have both (pay and lands) to the value of fifty (thousand). ### [1.8](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.8) The Sadr-i Jahan, or Kazi-l kuzat, which office is held, at the time I am writing, by Kamalu-d din, son of Burhanu-d din, has ten towns, producing a revenue of about 60,000 tankas. This dignitary is also called Sadru-l Islam, and is the chief officer of justice. The Shaikhu-l Islam, who corresponds to our Shaikhu-sh shuyukh, has the same revenue. The Muhtasib, or chief of the police, has a village which brings him in about 800 tankas. ### [1.9](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.9) At the Court of this prince there are 1,200 physicians, 10,000 falconers, who ride on horseback, and carry the birds trained for hawking, 300 beaters to go in front and put up the game, 3,000 dealers, who sell the articles required for hawking, 500 table companions, 1,200 musicians, not including the mamluk musicians to the number of 1,000, who are more especially charged with the teaching of music, and 1,000 poets skilled in one of three languages, Arabic, Persian, or Indian. All these are men of fine taste, who are included in the establishment of the Court, and receive magnificent presents. If the Sultan hears that one of his musicians has sung before any other person, he has him put to death. I asked my informant what pay these various officers received, but he did not know; he could only inform me that the table companions of the prince held some of them one, and some of them two towns; and that each of them, according to his rank, received 40,000, 30,000, or 20,000 tankas, without taking into account dresses, robes of honour, and other presents. According to Shaikh Mubarak, the Sultan gives two audiences daily, in the morning and in the evening, and a repast is then served, at which 20,000 men are present, khans, maliks, amirs, isfah-salars, and the principal officers. At his private meals, that is, at his dinner and supper, the Sultan receives learned lawyers to the number of 200, who eat with him and converse upon learned matters. ### [1.10](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.10) Shaikh Abu Bakr bin Khallal Bazzi told me that he asked the Sultan's cook how many animals were killed daily to supply the royal table, and the reply was 2,600 oxen, 2,000 sheep, without taking into account fatted horses and birds of all descriptions. \* \* \* The amriya has under his charge the army and the people at large. Lawyers and learned men, whether inhabitants of the country or foreigners, are under the inspection of the Sadr-i Jahan. The fakirs, whether natives or strangers, are under the Shaikhu-l Islam. Lastly, all travellers, ambassadors, or others, men of letters, poets, both native and foreign, are all under the dabirs, or secretaries. \* \* \* \* When the Sultan goes hunting his suite is less numerous. He only takes with him 100,000 horsemen and 200 elephants. Four wooden houses of two stories are carried in his train by 200 camels. Tents and pavilions of all kinds follow. When he travels from one place to another, for pleasure or for other motives, he takes with him 30,000 horsemen, 200 elephants, and 1,000 led horses, with saddles and bridles worked with gold, and with other trappings of gold, set with pearls and jewels. ### [1.11](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.11) The Sultan is generous and liberal, and at the same time full of humility. Abu-s Safa 'Umar bin Is'hak Shabali informed me that he saw this monarch at the funeral of a fakir of great sanctity, and that he bore the coffin on his shoulders. He is noted for knowing the Holy Book by heart, as also the law book called Hidaya, which expounds the principles of the school of Abu Hanifa. He excels in all intellectual accomplishments. He possesses in the very highest degree a talent for caligraphy. He is given to religious exercises, and is careful to regulate his passions. To these advantages he adds literary acquirements. He is fond of reciting verses, composing them, and hearing them read, when he readily seizes their most hidden allusions. He likes to consult with learned men, and to converse with men of merit. He is also particularly fond of contending with poets in Persian, a language which he knows perfectly, and understands all its niceties of expression. \*\*\*\*\* The stories I have been told of the benevolence and generosity of this Sultan towards strangers, and to all who have recourse to him, pass all belief. \*\*\*\*\* ### [1.12](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.12) The Sultan never ceases to show the greatest zeal in making war upon the infidels, both by sea and land. \*\*\*\*\* Every day thousands of slaves are sold at a very low price, so great is the number of prisoners. According to the unanimous statements of the travellers I have cited, the value, at Dehli, of a young slave girl, for domestic service, does not exceed eight tankas. Those who are deemed fit to fill the parts of domestic and concubine sell for about fifteen tankas. In other cities the prices are still lower. Abu-s Safa 'Umar bin Is'hak Shabali assured me that he bought a young slave in the flower of his youth for four dirhams. The rest may be understood from this. But still, in spite of the low price of slaves, 20,000 tankas, and even more, are paid for young Indian girls. I inquired the reason, and was told that these young girls are remarkable for their beauty, and the grace of their manners. According to what I heard from Shabali, the smallest quantity of wine is not to be found either in shops or in private houses : so great is the Sultan's aversion to it and so severe the punishments with which he visits its votaries. Besides, the inhabitants of India have little taste for wine and intoxicating drinks, but content themselves with betel, an agreeable drug, the use of which is permitted without the slightest objection. ### [1.13](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.13) From the information of the learned Siraju-d din Abu-s Safa 'Umar Shabali, it appears that the Sultan is very anxious to know all that passes in his territories, and to understand the position of all those who surround him, whether civilians or soldiers. He has emissaries, called intelligencers, who are divided into a great number of classes. One goes among the soldiers and people. When any fact comes under his notice which ought to be communicated to the Sultan, he reports it to the officer above him; this one, in like manner, communicates it to his superior; and so in due course the fact comes to the knowledge of the Sultan. For communicating the events which happen in distant provinces, there are established, between the capital and the chief cities of the different countries, posts, placed at certain distances from each other, which are like the post-relays in Egypt and Syria; but they are less wide apart, because the distance between them is not more than four bow-shots, or even less. At each of these posts ten swift runners are stationed, whose duty it is to convey letters to the next station without the least delay. As soon as one of these men receives a letter, he runs off as rapidly as possible, and delivers it to the next runner, who starts immediately with similar speed, while the former returns quietly to his own post. ### [1.14](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.14) Thus a letter from a very distant place is conveyed in a very short time with greater celerity than if it had been transmitted by post, or by camel express. At each of these post-stations there are mosques, where prayers are said, and where travellers can find shelter, reservoirs full of good water, and markets where all things necessary for the food of man and beast can be purchased, so that there is very little necessity for carrying water, or food, or tents. All through the country which separates the two capitals of the empire, Dehli and Deogír, the Sultan has had drums placed at every post-station. When any event occurs in a city, or when the gate of one is opened or closed, the drum is instantly beaten. The next nearest drum is then beaten, and in this manner the Sultan is daily and exactly informed at what time the gates of the most distant cities are opened or closed. \* \* \* \* I will now speak about the money, and afterwards about the price of provisions, seeing that these are regulated and calculated upon the value of money. Shaikh Mubárak informed me that the red lac consists of 100,000 tankas (of gold), and the white lac of 100,000 tankas (of silver). The gold tanka, called the red tanka, is equal to three miskáls and the silver tanka comprises eight dirhams hashtkání. The dirham hashtkání has the same weight as the silver dirham, current in Egypt and Syria. The value of both is the same, with scarcely the slightest difference. ### [1.15](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.15) The dirham hashtkání answers to four dirhams sultánís, otherwise called dukánís. A dirham sultání is worth the third of a dirham shashkání, which is a third kind of silver coin current in India, and which is worth three-fourths of the dirham hashtkání. A piece, which is the half of the dirham sultání, is called yakání (piece of one), and is worth one jítal. Another dirham, called dwázdahkání (piece of twelve), passes for a hashtkání and a half. Another coin, called shánzdahkání, corresponds to two dirhams. So the silver coins current in India are six, i.e. the dirham shánzdahkání, the dwázdahkání, the hashtkání, the shashkání, the sultání, and the yakání. The least of these pieces is the dirham sultání. These three kinds of dirhams are employed in commerce, and are taken universally, but there is no one of more general use than the dirham sultání, which is worth a quarter of the dirham of Egypt and of Syria. The dirham sultání is equal to eight fals \[or fulús\] ; the jítal to four fals ; and the dirham hashtkání, which corresponds exactly to the silver dirham of Egypt and Syria, is worth thirty-two fals. The ritl of India, which is called sír, weighs seventy miskáls, which, estimated in dirhams of Egypt, is worth 102f. Forty sírs make one man. They do not know the way of measuring grain in India. ### [1.16](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.16) As to the price of provisions, wheat, which is the dearest article, sells for a dirham hashtkáni and a half the man. Barley costs one dirham the man. Rice, one dirham three-quarters the man; but some sorts of this grain are higher in price. Two mans of peas cost a dirham hashtkáni. Beef and goats' flesh are of the same price, and are sold at the rate of six sirs for a dirham sultáni, which is the quarter of a dirham hashtkáni. Mutton sells at four sirs the dirham sultáni. A goose costs two dirhams hashtkánis, and four fowls can be bought for one hashtkáni. Sugar sells at five sirs the hashtkáni, and sugar-candy at four sirs the dirham. A well-fatted sheep of the first quality sells for a tanka, which represents eight dirhams hashtkánis. A good ox sells for two tankas, and sometimes for less. Buffaloes at the same price. The general food of the Indians is beef and goats' flesh. I asked Shaikh Mubarak if this usage arose from the scarcity of sheep, and he replied that it was a mere matter of habit, for in all the villages of India there are sheep in thousands. For a dirham of the money of Egypt four fowls can be bought of the best quality. Pigeons, sparrows, and other birds are sold very cheap. All kinds of game, birds, and quadrupeds, are extremely plentiful. There are elephants and rhinoceroses, but the elephants of the country of the Zinjes are the most remarkable. ### [1.17](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.17) Our shaikh, the marvel of the age, Shamsu-d din Isfahani, gave me the following details. Kutbu-d din Shirazi maintained that alchemy was a positive science. One day I argued with him, and endeavoured to prove the falsity of the art. He replied, "You know very well the quantity of gold that is annually consumed in the fabrication of various articles and objects of many kinds. The mines are far from producing a quantity equal to that which is thus withdrawn. As regards India, I have calculated that for the last three thousand years that country has not exported gold into other countries, and whatever has entered it has never come out again. Merchants of all countries never cease to carry pure gold into India, and to bring back in exchange commodities of herbs and gums. If gold were not produced in an artificial way, it would altogether have disappeared." Our shaikh, Shahabu-d din, observed upon this that what this author asserted of gold going into India, and never coming out again, was perfectly true; but the conclusion which he drew from this fact, as to alchemy being a real science, was false and illusory. He adds the following statement: "I have heard say that one of the predecessors of the Sultan, after making great conquests, carried off from the countries he had subdued as much gold as required 13,000 oxen to carry." ### [1.18](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.18) I must add, that the inhabitants of India have the character of liking to make money and hoard it. If one of them is asked how much property he has, he replies, "I don't know, but I am the second or third of my family who has laboured to increase the treasure which an ancestor deposited in a certain cavern, or in certain holes, and I do not know how much it amounts to." The Indians are accustomed to dig pits for the reception of their hoards. Some form an excavation in their houses like a cistern, which they close with care, leaving only the opening necessary for introducing the gold pieces. Thus they accumulate their riches. They will not take worked gold, either broken or in ingots, but in their fear of fraud refuse all but coined money. The following information I derived from the Shaikh Burhanu-d dín Abu Bakr bin Khallál Muhammad Bazzí, the Súfi. The Sultan \[Muhammad Tughlik\] sent an army against a country bordering upon Deogír, at the extremity of that province. It is inhabited by infidels, and all its princes bear the title of rá \[rái\]. The reigning prince, finding himself pressed by the troops of the Sultan, made this communication: "Tell your master that if he will leave us at peace, I am ready to send him all the riches he can desire; all he has to do is to send me sufficient beasts to carry the sum he requires." The general sent this proposition to his master, and was ordered to cease hostilities, and to give the rái a safe conduct. ### [1.19](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1.19) When the rái appeared before the Sultan, the latter heaped honours upon him, and said: "I have never heard the like of what you have proposed. What is the amount, then, of those treasures that you undertake to load with gold as many beasts of burden as we like to send?" The rái replied: "Seven princes have preceded me in the government of my kingdom. Each of them amassed a treasure amounting to seventy bains, and all these treasures are still at my disposal." The word bain signifies a very large cistern, into which there is a descent by a ladder on each of the four sides. The Sultan, delighted by this statement, ordered his seal to be put on these treasures, which was done. Then he ordered the rái to appoint viceroys in his dominions, and to reside at Dehli. He also invited him to turn Musulmán, but on his refusal he allowed him to adhere to his own religion. The rái dwelt at the court of the Sultan, and appointed viceroys to govern his territories. The Sultan assigned him a suitable income, and sent considerable sums into his territories to be distributed as alms among the inhabitants, seeing they were now subjects of the empire. Lastly, he did not touch the bains, but left them as they were, under seal. ## Linked texts (1) - [مسالك الأبصار في ممالك الأمصار](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar.2.1-20) — Ibn Faḍl Allāh al-ʿUmarī, Arabic --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.isl.ar.mawsua.masalik-al-absar~en-elliot.1) · Pramāṇa