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Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v2.c13.s3: The Āgamas

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v2.c13.s3

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English

The Āgamas

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The term *Āgama* generally implies a traditional doctrine or precept, a sacred writing or scripture and hence the Vedas. But there is a special class of works inculcating the mystical worship of Śiva and Śakti like the *Tantras*: they belong to South India and are known as the *Āgamas*.¹ They are encyclopædic works like the *Purāṇas*, whose ultimate object is also to discuss the worship of the Triad The *Purāṇas*, however, deal with all the three deities forming the holy Trinity, although Vishṇu has received preference and to his worship fourteen of the Purāṇas are devoted. The *Āgamas*, on the other hand, deal mostly with Śiva. Obviously they are intended to represent the *Purāṇas* of South India. These *Āgamas* of *Dākshiṇātya* are in fact more extensive than the *Purāṇas* of *Āryāvarta*. There are as many as twenty-eight recognized *Āgamas*,² while the number of the great *Purāṇas* is not more than eighteen or nineteen.³

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¹ Compare the traditional definition of the Āgama :

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² (1) कामिकागम, (2) सुप्रभेदागम, (3) योगजागम, (4) चिन्त्यागम, (5) कारणागम, (6) अजितागम, (7) दीप्तागम, (8) सूक्ष्मागम, (9) सहस्रागम, (10) अंशुमानागम, (11) विजयागम, (12)निश्वासागम, (13) स्वायंभुवागम, (14) असितागम, (15) विश्वागागम, (16) रौरवागम, (17) मुकुटागम, (18) विमलागम, (19) चन्द्रज्ञानागम, (20) बिम्बागम, (21) प्रोद्गीतागम, (22) ललितागम, (23) सिद्धागम, also called वैखानसागम, (24) सन्तानागम, (25) सर्वोक्तागम, (26) परमेश्वरागम, (27) किरणागम, and (28) वातुलागम.

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³ See page 19, note 1.

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The *Āgamas*, like the *Purāṇas*, incidentally deal with architectural subjects; their contributions to the *Śilpa-śāstra* are, however, more extensive and valuable. Some of the *Āgamas* deal with very technical matters, which are not met with in the *Purāṇas*. Moreover, some *Āgamas* to all intents and purposes are but architectural treatises. The *Kāmikāgama*, for instance, devotes sixty chapters out of a total of seventy-five to architecture and sculpture, and its treatment of the subjects can hardly be surpassed by that of an avowedly architectural treatise. Just like a *Śilpa-śastra* it begins systematically with the preliminary matters, such as the testing and preparation of soil, selection of sites, scheme of measurement and the finding out of the cardinal points by means of gnomons for the orientation of buildings, and the ground plans. Buildings proper are described under twenty types, just as in the *Matsya* and *Bhavishya Purāṇas*, as well as the *Bṛihat saṁhitā*.

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आगतं पञ्चवक्त्रात्तु गतं च गिरिजानाने ।
मतं च वासुदेवस्य तस्मादागममुच्यते ॥

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But, unlike the *Purāṇas*, there is in the *Kāmikāgama* a discussion of architectural matters under some very highly technical classifications, such as the styles, Nāgara, Drāviḍa and Vesara; shapes, masculine, feminine, and neuter; Śuddha, Miśra, and Saṁkīrṇa, depending respectively on a single material, mixture of two materials, and the amalgamation of many materials; Saṁchita, Asaṁchita and Apasaṁchita otherwise known as Sthānaka, Āsana, and Śayana, which, in case of temples, depend on the erect, sitting, and reclining postures of the image¹. Another very technical matter referred to is *āyādi* formulas so very important in selecting the right proportions.² For the close similarity of this *Āgama* with the *Śilpa-śāstras* it is, however, necessary to glance over the following *paṭalas* or chapters together with the corresponding chapters of the standard Śilpa-śāstra, the *Mānasāra*, which is referred to in more detail elsewhere in this volume³ :
11. Bhū-parīkshā-vidhi—examination of soil (*Mānasāra*, chapter IV, bearing the same title).
12. Praveśa-bali-vidhi—offerings (M. VIII).
13. Bhū-parigraha-vidhi—selection of site (M. V).
14. Bhū-karshaṇa-vidhi—ploughing the site (M. V).
15. Śaṅku-sthāpana-vidhi—gnomons (M. VI).
16. Mānopakaraṇa-vidhi—system of measurement (M. II).
17. Pada-vinyāsa—ground-plan (M. VII).
18. Sūtra-nirmāṇa—making ropes (M. II)
19. Vāstu-deva-bali—offerings to the guardian angel of the house (M. VIII) cf. 12.
20. Grāmādi-lakshaṇa—laying out villages and towns (M. IX, X)
21. Vistārāyāma-lakshaṇa—dimensions (M XI).
22. Āyādi-lakshaṇa—a special kind of architectural and sculptural measurement used in selecting the right proportion (M. LXIV).
24. Daṇḍikā-vidhi—dealing with doors and gateways (M. XXXVIII XXXIX, XXXIII).
25. Vīthī-dvārādi-māna—roads and doors (M. IX, X, XXXIX).
26. Grāmādi-devatā-sthāpana—temples in villages and towns (M. IX, X).
28. Grāmādi-vinyāsa—more details on villages and towns (M. IX, X), cf. 20.
29. Brahma-deva-padādi—more details on ground-plan (M VII), cf. 17.
30. Grāmādi-aṅga-sthāna-nirmāṇa—more details on villages and towns (M. IX, X), cf. 20, 26, 28.

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¹ ^1 For fuller information, consult the writer's *Dictionary* under these terms; and also see page 118

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² ^2 For details see the writer's *Dictionary* under Shaḍvarga, and also see page 192, note 1.

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³ ^3 See pages 37 to 91.

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31. Garbha-nyāsa—foundations (M. XII).
32. Bāla-sthāpana-vidhi— the installation of Bāla.
33. Grāma-gṛiha-vinyāsa—the arrangement of houses in villages and towns (M IX, X), cf. 20, 26, 28, 30. 34 Vāstu-śānti-vidhi—not mentioned in M.
35. Śālā-lakshaṇa-vidhi—halls, etc. (M. XXXV).
36. Viśesha-lakshaṇa-vidhi—not mentioned in M
37. Dvi-śālā-lakshaṇa-vidhi—houses with two compartments, in many places in M.
38. Chatuḥ-śālā-lakshaṇa-vidhi—houses with four compartments, not in one place in M.
40. Vardhamāna-śālā-lakshaṇa—more details on Śālās (M. XXXV), cf. 35, 37, 38.
41. Nandyāvarta-vidhi—more details on Śālās (M. XXXV), cf. 35, 37, 38, 40.
42. Svastika-vidhi—more details on Śālās (M. XXXV), cf. 35, 37, 38, 40, 41. 43 Paksha-śālā-vidhi—more details on side-halls or ante-chambers (M. XXXV), cf. 35, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42.
44. Asti(Hasti) śālā-vidhi—more details on Śālās (M. XXXV), cf. 35, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43.
45. Mālikā-lakshaṇa-vidhi—a special kind of buildings (cf. M. XIX to XXX).
46. Lāṅgala-mālikā-vidhi— more details on Mālikā buildings, cf. 45.
47. Maulika-mālikā-vidhi—more details on Mālikā buildings, cf. 45, 46.
48. Padma-mālikā-vidhi—more details on Mālikā buildings, cf. 45, 46, 47.
49. Nāgarādi-vidhi—not separately treated in M.
50. Bhūmi-lamba-vidhi—dimensions of storeys (M. XI).
51. Ādyeshṭaka-vidhāna-vidhi—laying the foundation stone; in many places in M.
52. Upapīṭha-vidhi— pedestals (M. XIII).
53. Pāda-māna-vidhi—pillars (M. XV).
54. Prastara-vidhi—entablatures (M. XVI).
55. Prāsāda-bhūshaṇa-vidhi—the articles of house furniture (M. L).
56. Kaṇṭha-lakshaṇa-vidhi—the neck parts of buildings, in many places in M.
57. Śikhara-lakshaṇa-vidhi--the top parts of buildings, in many places in M.
58. Stūpika-lakshaṇa-vidhi—steeples or domes of buildings, in many places in M.
59. Nālādi-sthāpana-vidhi—construction of waterways and drains, in many places in M.
60. Eka-bhūmyādi-vidhi—buildings of one and more storeys (M. XIX-XXX).
61. Mūrdhni-sthāpana-vidhi-- construction of tops of buildings, in many places in M.
62. Liṅga-lakshaṇa-vidhi—the Phallus (M. LII).

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63. Ankurārpaṇa-vidhi—literally sowing the seed, not separately treated in M.
64. Liṅga-pratishṭhā-vidhi—installation of the Phallus (M. LII).
65. Pratimā-lakshaṇa-vidhi—images (M. LXIV, etc.).
67. Devatā-sthāpana-vidhi—installation of images of deities (M. LI, LIV, LV, LVI, LXIV, etc.).
68. Pratimā-pratishṭhā-vidhi—more details on images, cf. 65, 67.
69. Vimāna-sthāpana-vidhi—buildings (M. XVIII).
70. Maṇḍapa-sthāpana-vidhi—pavilions (M. XXXIV).
71. Prākāra-lakshaṇa-vidhi—courts and enclosures (M. XXXI).
72. Parivāra-sthāpana-vidhi—temples of attendant deities (M. XXXII).
74. Vṛishabha-sthāpana-vidhi—the bull, the riding animal of Śiva (M. LXII).
75. Gopura-sthāpana-vidhi—the construction of gate-houses (M. XXXIII).

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The *Kāraṇāgama* also devotes much space to architecture and sculpture. There are thirty-seven chapters in this *Āgama*, which deal with these subjects exhaustively. It makes a distinct addition to the *Āgamas'* contributions to the *Śilpa-śāstras*. It contributes two valuable chapters dealing with the details of the nine and ten tāla measures.¹ This is also a highly technical matter concerning sculpture and entirely missing in the *Purāṇas*. This *Āgama* also has close similarities with the *Mānasāra*, which will appear, however imperfectly, from the following list of chapters:

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¹ For details consult the writer's Dictionary under Tālamāna, and see pages 81-82, 84-85.

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Part I, chapters (paṭalas)—
3. Vāstu-vinyāsa—classification of building-sites (*Mānasāra*, *Vāstu-prakaraṇa*, chapter III).
4. Ādyeshṭaka-vidhi—laying the foundation stone, mentioned in many places in M.
5. Adhishṭhāna-vidhi—bases (M. XIV).
6. Garbha-nyāsa-vidhi—foundations (M. XII).
7. Prāsāda-lakshaṇa-vidhi—buildings (cf. M. XVIII, XIX to XXX).
8. Prākāra-lakshaṇa-vidhi—courts (and enclosures) (*Mānasāra*, bearing same title, chapter XXXI).
9. Liṅga-lakshaṇa-vidhi—the Phallus (M. LII).
10. Mūrdhnīshṭaka-lakshaṇa—ornaments at the topmost parts of buildings.
11. Pratimā-lakshaṇa--images (M. LXIV, LI, LIV to LXII).
12. Strī-māna-daśa-tāla-lakshaṇa—intermediate type of daśa (ten) tāla measurement, used for the images of females (M. LXVI).

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13. Kanishṭha-daśa-tāla-lakshaṇa—the smallest type of *daśa* (ten) *tāla* measurement (M. LIX).

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14. Nava-tālottama-lakshaṇa—the largest type of *nava* (nine) *tāla* measurement (M. LIX).

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16. Bali-karma-vidhi—offerings (M. VIII).

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19. Mṛit-saṁgrahaṇa-vidhi—collection and preparation of earth (for images).

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20. Aṅkurārpaṇa-vidhi—literally sowing the seed

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41. Mahābhisheka-vidhi—great coronation or anointing (cf. M XLIX).

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56. Vāstu-homa vidhi—sacrificial offerings in connection with the construction of a house, cf. 16.

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59. Liṅga-sthāpana-vidhi—installation of the Phallus (M. LII), cf. 9.

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60. Parivāra-sthāpana-vidhi—the temples of the attendant deities (M. XXXII).

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61. Bali-pīṭha-pratishṭhā-vidhi—seat of sacrifice.

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62. Ratna-liṅga-sthāpana-vidhi—more details on the Phallus, cf. 9, 59.

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66. Parivāra-bali—more details on the attendant deities, cf. 60.

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88. Bhakta-sthāpana-vidhi—on the images of devotees (M. LIX).

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136. Mṛit-saṁgrahaṇa—more details on the collection and preparation of soil, cf. 19.

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Part II, chapters (paṭalas)—

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4. Kīla-parīkshā—the nail at the top.

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5. Gopura-vidhāna—gate-houses (M. XXXIII).

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6. Maṇḍapa-lakshaṇa—pavilions (M. XXXIV).

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7. Pīṭha-lakshaṇa—pedestals (M. XIII, LIII).

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8. Śakti-lakshaṇa—female deities (M. LIV).

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9. Grāma-śānti-vidhi—villages (M. IX, X).

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11. Mṛit-saṁgrahaṇa—more details on soil, cf. part I, 19, 136.

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12. Aṅkurārpaṇa—more details on sowing the seed, cf. Part I, 20.

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13. Bimba-śuddhi—purification of idols.

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14. Kautuka-bandhana—experimental yoking for the purpose of ploughing the building-site (M. V).

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15. Nayanonmīlana—chiselling the eyes (M. LXX).

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18. Bimba-śuddhi—purification of idols (cf. II, 13).

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19. Śayanāropaṇa—bedsteads (M. XLIV).

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20. Śiva-liṅga-sthāpana—more details on the Phallus, cf. I, 9, 59.

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98. Maṭha-pratishṭhā—monasteries.

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The *Suprabhedāgama* has devoted only fifteen chapters to architecture and sculpture. Nor has it any thing new to add to the *Āgamas’* contributions to the *Śilpa-śāstras*. But its unique nature consists in the fact that it has quite successfully summarised all important matters in a comparatively small space,¹ and in respect of brevity, explicitness and precision it surpasses even the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā* of Varāhamihira.² This *Āgama* has apparently drawn upon a *Śilpa-śāstra*. Its similarities with the *Mānasāra*, discussed elsewhere in detail,³ may be partly apparent from the following list of its chapters read together with the corresponding portions of the standard *Śilpa-śāstra*:

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¹ See pages 118, 119

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² See pages 117. 118, 119.

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³ See pages 110-113, 117-119.

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22. Karaṇādhikāra-lakshaṇa—on the constructive arts, dealing with *ushṇīsha* (head gear), *āsana* (seat, chair), *paryaṅka* (bedstead, couch), *siṁhāsana* (throne), *raṅga* (courtyard, theatre), and *stambha* (column), (*Mānasāra*, XLIX, XLIV, XLV, XLVII, XV, etc.).
23. Grāmādi-lakshaṇa-vidhi—villages and towns (M. IX, X).
26. Taruṇālaya-vidhi—a special kind of building.
27. Prāsāda-vāstu-vidhi—buildings in general (M. XVIII, XIX to XXX).
28. Ādyeshṭaka-vidhi—laying the foundation-stone, mentioned in many places in M.
29. Garbha-nyāsa-vidhi—foundations (M. XII).
30. Aṅguli-lakshaṇa-vidhi—the *aṅgula* (finger-breadth) measurement (cf. M. II, LV).
31. Prāsāda-lakshaṇa-vidhi—more details on buildings, cf. 27.
32. Mūrdhnīshṭaka-vidhi—an ornament on the top-most part of buildings.
33. Liṅga-lakshaṇa—the phallus (M. LII).
34. Sakala-lakshaṇa-vidhi—images of Īśvara and other deities (M. LI to LXIV).
35. Aṅkurārpaṇa-vidhi—sowing the seed.
36. Liṅga-pratishṭhā-vidhi—installation of the phallus (M. LII); cf. 33.
37. Sakala-pratishṭhā-vidhi—installation of the images of Īśvara and other deities, cf. 34.
38. Śakti-pratishṭhā-vidhi—installation of the images of the female deities (M. LIV).
39. Parivāra-vidhi—temples of attendant deities (M. XXXII)
40. Vṛishabha-sthāpana-vidhi—the image of the Bull of Śiva (M. LXII).

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The *Vaikhānasa-āgama* has two chapters on sculpture, one of which deals with the general description of images and the other with the ten-*tāla* measures.⁴ The *Aṁśumad-bhedāgama*⁵ has a single chapter on the ten-*tāla* measures.⁶ Instances like those given above can be culled from the remaining *Āgamas* also; but the multiplication of illustrations is not likely to furnish any new information. It is, however, clear that architecture was a favourite subject for the authors of the *Āgamas* also.

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⁴ पटल (Chapter) 22—प्रतिमालक्षण, 43—उत्तमदशताल ।

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⁵ There is an architectural treatise bearing the title अंशुमद्भेद the authorship of which is attributed to Kāśyapa. Consult the writer's Dictionary, Appendix; and see pages 94 to 97.

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⁶ पटल(Chapter) 28—उत्तमदशतालविधिः ।

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The works on royal polity deal with architectural matters in a more than casual way. The Kauṭilīya *Artha-śāstra*, for instance, devotes some seven chapters to the subject, containing a large number of structural details. There are interesting descriptions of forts, fortified cities, town-planning, and military and residential buildings.¹

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¹ Chapters 22—जनपद निवेश । 23—भूमिच्छिद्रविधान । 24—दुर्गविधान । 25—दुर्गनिवेश । The last two deal with the laying out of fortified towns and forts. 65—वास्तुक, गृहवास्तुक (residential and military buildings). 66—वास्तुविक्रय, सोमाविवाद, मर्यादास्थापन etc. For full details see the writer's Dictionary under Durga, Nagara, and Grāma.

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The *Śukra-nīti* deals with both architectural and sculptural objects. Rules and structural details are given along with interesting descriptions of forts and fortified towns, of temples and other kinds of buildings, and of various sorts of images.² In this treatise sculptural details are more numerous in some respects than even in the *Śilpa-śāstras*. Repair of broken images, for instance, is an important matter in sculpture, which has been dealt with in detail in this treatise. Another important contribution made by the *Śukra-nīti* to the *Śilpa-śāstras* is the description of the seven-*tāla* measures which are generally applicable, both in India and the West, to well proportioned human figures only.

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² Chapter IV, Section 4:—
(1) देवमन्दिरनिर्माणव्यवस्था—the construction of temples and other kinds of buildings. For details of royal palaces see the concluding portion of chapter I.
(2) प्रतिमानिर्माणव्यवस्था—images.
(3) मूर्तीनां वाहननिर्माणव्यवस्था—the images of the riding animals of deities.
(4) गणपतिमूर्तिनिर्माणव्यवस्था—the image of Gaṇapati
(5) शक्तिमूर्तिनिर्माणव्यवस्था—images of the female deities.
(6) बालमूर्तिनिर्माणव्यवस्था—images of Bāla (Child Kṛishṇa).
(7) सप्ततालादिमूर्तिभेदस्य निर्माणव्यवस्था—the images measured in the seven (*sapta*) and other *tāla* measurements.
(8) पिशाचीमूर्तिनिर्माणव्यवस्था—the images of the demonesses.
(9) भग्नप्रतिमास्थापनव्यवस्था—the repair of the damaged images.
(10) उत्सवव्यापारव्यवस्था—Festival in connection with installation of images Section 6—
(1) दुर्गनिर्माण—the construction of forts (and fortified towns) For full details see the writer's Dictionary under *tālamāna*

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Avowedly historical works are not numerous in Sanskrit. Of the two treatises, one is concerned with the reign of a single king and the other with the events of a country covering many reigns. In both these treatises architecture has been given its already well-recognized place.

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The *Harsha-charita* is a history of Harshavardhana of Kanauj, during whose reign the famous Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang visited India. In this history it is stated that "the palace had besides the harem always more than three courtyards; the outer one being for people and for state reception, the next inner one for sardars (chiefs or nobles) and the third one for intimate persons only. The palaces were stately buildings, though not of stone. The floors, however, are described as made of shining stones. The columns and walls were ornamented with gold and even precious stones. There was usually a several storeyed building with inner gardens of flower-beds and large fruit trees." Mention is made also of detached buildings like the *Maṇḍapas* or pavilions for the purposes of *sabhā* (council hall), *satra* (inn), *prapā* (drinking-house), and *prāg-vaṁśa*.² The useful articles of house furniture, such as thrones (*siṁhāsana*), couches (*śayana*), and *āsandi*, meaning chairs, are also described.³

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² Harsha-charita, page 176: बहिरुपपरचितांवकटमभासत्रप्राग्वंशमण्डपैः प्रसूतागवेप्रामैः । See also ibid, page 137.

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³ H. C. page 103, ibid, 153.

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The *Rāja-taraṅgiṇī* of Kalhaṇa, dealing with the history of Kashmir, refers frequently to architectural objects like castles (*Bāṇa-śālā*)⁴, monumental buildings (*Chaitya*),⁵ and monasteries (*Vihāras*).⁶ But in these references very few structural details are to be met with. The references of Kalhaṇa to temples and other buildings also generally lack constructive details.⁷ But interesting structural details of some shrines merely referred to in Kalhaṇa's work are elaborated by Major C. B. Bates in the Gazetteer of Kashmir¹ and have been given in a note by Sir M. A. Stein.²

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¹ History of Mediæval India, Vaidya, page 152. See Harsha-charita, pages 215-216, description of the palace of Prabhākara Vardhana of Thānēśvara.

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⁴ VIII, 1666.

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⁵ I, 103, 170; III, 380, 381; IV, 200, 204.

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⁶ I, 93, 94, 98, 103, 140—144, 146, 147, 169, 199, 200; III, 9, 11, 13, 14, 355, 380, 464, 476; IV, 79, 184, 188, 200, 210, 215, 216, 262, 507; VI, 171, 175, 303; VII. 696, 1336; VIII, 246, 248, 2402, 2410, 2417, 2431, 2433, 3343, 3352, 3353.

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⁷ Compare, e.g., the Śāradā temple (I. 37), Śāradā-sthāna (VIII, 2556, 2706), etc.

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¹ page 339.

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² "The temple is approached from the lower slope of the hill . . . by an imposing stone staircase . . which leads up in sixty-three steps to the main entrance of the quadrangular court enclosing the temple. It is about 10 feet wide and rises rather steeply between two flanking walls of massive construction, broken in six steps or flights. The entrance to the court is through a gateway, provided with the usual double porch of Kāśmīrian architecture."

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The astrological and astronomical treatises frequently refer to architectural topics, especially those bearing upon auspicious times. In a pamphlet of this class twenty-one things are stated to be observed in connection with building a house.³ A famous astronomical treatise, the Gârga-saṁhitā, deals with a large number of purely architectural subjects, such as the courts, compounds, compartments, rooms, dimensions, and location of doors.⁴

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³ > आयराशिश्च नक्षत्रं व्ययस्तारांशकस्तथा।

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⁴ The manuscript in the Trinity College, Cambridge, is in a mutilated condition. The contents of the first and second chapters, fol. 67-68, are almost illegible. The following are a little better—

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"The temple, which occupies the centre of the quadrangle, forms a square cella conforming in plan and elevation to the usual features of Kāśmīr architecture. It is raised on a basement 24 feet square and 5' 3" high. The walls of the cella proper recede about 2 feet from the edge of the basement. They are adorned on the north, east and south by trefoil arches and supporting pilasters both projecting in relievo. Below these arches are small trefoil-headed niches covered by double pediments."
"The entrance to the interior of the cella is . . . approached by stairs 5½ feet wide with flanking side walls. There is an open portico in front of the door projecting about 4 feet beyond the pilasters on each side of the doorway. It is supported on the outside by two pillars. . . . The interior of the cella forms a square of 12 feet 3 inches, and has no decoration of any kind."
(Kalhaṇa's Rājatarangiṇī, vol. II, notes, page 283 fol.)

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ग्रहमैत्री राशिमैत्रो नातिभेदगणेन्दवः॥
आधिपत्यं वारलग्ने तिथ्युत्पत्तिस्तथैव च ।
आधिपत्यं वर्गवैरं तथैव योनिवैरकम् ॥
ऋक्षवैरं स्थिति र्नशो लक्षणान्येकविंशतिः ।
कथितानि मुनिश्रेष्ठैः शिल्पिर्वाधर्गृहादिषु ॥
(Laghu-Śilpa-jyotiḥ-sāra, verses 3-5).

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(i) वास्तुविद्यायां चतुर्भागत्रिभागप्रतिभागविधिः (fol. 60 a).
(ii) गार्गियायां वास्तुविद्यायां चतुःशालाद्वित्रिशालैकशालाविधिः (fol. 60 a).
(iii) द्वारनिर्देशः (chap. 3, fols. 57 a and 68 b).
द्वारप्रमाणविधिः (fol 57 b).
द्वारस्तम्भोच्छ्रयः (fol. 60 b).
(iv) गृहप्रवेशः (fol. 68 b).

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The more authoritative works like the *Sūrya-siddhānta*,¹ the *Śiddhānta-śiromaṇi*,² and the *Līlāvatī*³ deal exhaustively with a very technical matter bearing upon architecture, namely, the description of gnomons which were used for finding out cardinal points. The subject is architecturally very important, inasmuch as it refers to the orientation of buildings.⁴

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¹ Chapter III, verses 1—4.

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² Chapter VII, verses 36—49.

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³ Part II, chapter II, section VII.

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⁴ Compare the writer's Dictionary under *Śaṅku*, and for full details see page 37.

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The poetical works of Kālidāsa, Bhavabhūti and others refer occasionally to architectural matters. In the *Vikramorvaśī*, for instance, mention is made of a flight of stairs made like the waves of the Ganges.⁵ The *Uttara-Rāma-Charita* refers to an architecturally important matter, namely, cement which is specially described in some *Śilpa-śāstras*.⁶ In the same work Nala, the son of the heavenly architect Viśvakarman, is mentioned as an engineer who built the bridge joining India with Ceylon.⁷

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⁵ गङ्गातरङ्गस्फटिकमणिसोपान, see also मणिहर्म्य (Kale's ed. 1898, Act. III. page 73).

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⁶ वज्रलेप, Act III, preceding verse 40.

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⁷ Act III, verse 45. Compare the *Rāmāyaṇa*, युद्धकाण्ड, chapter 22, verses 41—42. In the *Mānasāra* also Nala is mentioned as an architect, see *Mānasā* a, chapter II.

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Of this class of works, the *Mrichchhakaṭika* which is a modernized drama, dealing as it does with the ordinary affairs of worldly people, refers very frequently to architectural matters which are too numerous to be included here.⁸ A very interesting description of the gateway and as many as eight courtyards into which the whole compound is divided, is given in the fourth Act. This description is further full of architectural details. This reference is specially important owing to the fact that in the *Mānasāra* as well as the *Purāṇas* and the *Āgamas* the compound, however big it may be, is divided into not more than five courts, the fourth of which is technically called *prākāra* in the *Mānasāra*.¹

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⁸ Act I. गृहदेहली, threshold (verse 17); पक्षद्वारक्र, side entrance (33; also II. 83; IV. 129, VI, 209, 211, etc.); चतुःशाला, courtyard (39); प्रासादवालाग्रकपोतपालिका, dovecot on the top palace (52; VIII, 282, 283; IX. 347, 349, 350, 351). Act II. श्रेष्ठिचत्वर, merchant quarters (88, 136); बहिर्द्वारशाला, outer hall (101, 117) अभ्यन्तरचतुःशाला, inner court (107, 108, 109, VI. 204). पक्वेष्टक, आमेष्टक, baked and unbaked brick (111). Act V. प्राकार, fence (177); आरामप्रासादवेदिका, roof of the garden-house (177) Act VI. प्रतोलीद्वार, main gate (216). Act IX. व्यवहारमण्डप court of justice (289, 291), अधिकरणमण्डप, court of justice (289, 302, 305, 307, 320, etc.), दुर्वाचत्वर, grass lawn (291).

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¹ See page 51.

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Traces of an advanced state of architecture are found also in works like grammars and lexicons. Yāska in his *Nirukta* mentions several words which can be used for masonry houses only.² In the later lexicons like the *Amarakosha* lists of several architectural terms are met with.³ Derivations of words like *bhāskara*, sculptor; *ishṭaka*, brick; *stambha*, pillar; *aṭṭālikā*, edifices are found in Pāṇini's grammar. They no doubt imply the existence of brick and stone buildings in those times.⁴

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² R. L. Mitra, *Indo Aryan*, I, 25-26.

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³ Amarakosha, Section on towns and houses (Chapter II, section ii named *pura-varga*, verses 1-20; pages 116-126, ed. Śivadatta, Bombay, 1915).

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⁴ Mitra, ibid, I, 19.

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