Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c40.s13: Chapters XLI–XLII: Royal Courts and Characteristics of Kings (Rājāṅga-lakshaṇa, Bhūpāla-lakshaṇa)

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c40.s13

Language: English

Chapters XLI–XLII: Royal Courts and Characteristics of Kings (Rājāṅga-lakshaṇa, Bhūpāla-lakshaṇa)

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These two chapters deal with the royal courts, the classification of kings, the qualities which are required in a good ruler, and so forth.

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Kings are divided, in descending progression of rank, into nine classes, namely, *chakravartin*, *mahārāja* (or *adhirāja*), *mahendra* (or *narendra*), *pārshṇika*, *paṭṭadhara*, *maṇḍleśa*, *paṭṭabhāj*, *prāhāraka*, and *astragrāhin*.

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The opening and closing lines of Chapter XLI describe the general qualifications of all kings. They should know philosophy and religion and must be learned in all the *Śāstras*, and in the political, military, civil and moral laws. They should be haughty (*uddhata*), gracious (*lalita*), and generous (*udātta*) in their behaviour. They should have the direct knowledge of and control over the subordinate kings and ministers. They should themselves be great warriors and wise in all matters. The treasury should always be kept full and they should themselves be religious and of strict morals. They should be the protectors of their subjects. They should possess peace of mind, love of fame, good taste in matters of art, and fondness for music (*Gāndharva-śāstra*).

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Then it is stated of each of the nine classes of kings what should be the number of his horses, elephants, soldiers, women, and queens. The *astragrāhin*, for instance, who is least in rank, is said to possess 500 horses, 500 elephants, an army of 50,000 soldiers, 500 female attendants, and one queen (*mahishī*). The *prāhāraka*, who follows next, has 600 horses, 600 elephants, 100,000 soldiers, 700 beautiful women, and two queens. The highest figures are reached in the case of the *chakravartin* or universal monarch.

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Chapter XLII begins with the classification of kings mentioned above. The extent of their kingdoms and some special characteristics of each of the nine classes of kings are then described. The empire of the *chakravartin* reaches as far as the four oceans (*chatuḥ-sāgara*). He n a rather part. At ; arrangeon of the

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fication of so forth. into nine *narendra*), *rāhin*. le general d religion military, gracious ould have kings and vise in all ey should d be the nd, love of gāndharva-

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should be d queens. to possess oo female to follows beautiful n the case

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nentioned acteristics he empire *gara*). He

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[Figure: ROYAL PALACE FROM MANASARA. ROYAL PALACE]

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is the suzerain of all subordinate kings. He is strict in his judgment of right and wrong, but protects the people with kindness and mercy. He is famous and the most fortunate of all. The next king (*mahārāja* or *adhirāja*) is the lord of seven kingdoms. He has the six principal kingly qualities (*guṇa*), the six strengths (*bala*), and the three powers (*śakti*).¹ He is also versed in politics (*nīti*). He is born either in the solar or in the lunar race. The remaining seven classes of kings are similarly described.

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¹ The six qualities (*guṇa*) of a king are found in *Manu*, VII, 160 :

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A point of great historical interest in this passage is that royalty is no longer the monopoly of the Kshatriyas. A king may belong to any of the four castes—the Brahmans, the Kshatriyas, the Vaiśyas, and even the Śūdras. The *prāhāraka* is expressly stated to belong to any of the four castes.

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The nine kinds of crowns, which pertain to these nine classes of kings, are then described. This subject, however, is more elaborately treated in Chapter XLIX (*Abhisheka-lakshaṇa*). Next comes the description of the nine kinds of thrones used by the nine classes of kings. Here other royal insignia, particularly the white umbrella (*dhavala-chhattra*), and the chowrie or fly-whisk made of the yak's tail (*chāmara*) are also mentioned. Thrones, it will be noticed, are fully dealt with in Chapter XLV (*Siṁhāsana-lakshaṇa-vidhāna*).

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The next point of importance is the rate of royal revenue. The *chakravartin* takes only one-tenth of the produce as his share. The *mahārāja* takes one-sixth, the *narendra* one-fifth, the *pārshṇika* one-quarter, the *paṭṭadhara* one-third; the exact proportions of the other kings' shares are not given. No tax should be illegally imposed. Punishment and fines should be legal and moderate. The temples, as well as the Brahmans, the hermits and similar people should be supported by the state.

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At the end of the chapter it is stated that this description of kings is made on the authority of the *Vedas*, the *Purāṇas*, and the *Śāstras*.

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सन्धिं च विग्रहं चैव यानमासनमेव च । द्वैधीभावं संश्रयं च षड्गुणं चिन्तयेत्सदा ॥

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‘Let him [the king] constantly think of the six measures of royal policy (*guṇa*), viz. alliance, war, marching, halting, dividing the army, and seeking protection (Bühler, *S. B. E.*, XXV, p. 241). But according to another source the six *guṇas* or qualities of a king are valour, energy, firmness, ability, liberality and majesty. The three royal powers (*śakti*) are found in the *Amarakosha* 2, 8, 1, 19—*śaktayas tisraḥ prabhāvotsāha mantrajāḥ*, ‘the three powers come forth from majesty, energy, and good counsel.’

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Cars and Chariots (*Ratha-lakshaṇa-vidhāna*)

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Cars and chariots are constructed for the ceremonial and ordinary use of gods, Brahmans and kings, as well as for war and other purposes. The wheels and other parts of cars, their shapes, their measurements, their ornamentations and mouldings are described in order.

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The chapter begins with a minute description of the wheel, the most important part of the car. It is always circular, and is furnished with a strong tyre of similar shape. All its parts, together with their measurements, are described in detail—the *kukshi* (navel, *lit.* belly), *aksha* (axle), *śikhā* or *danta* (axle-band), *chhidra* (hole) and the *kīla* (axle-bolt, linch-pin), etc. Particular trees yielding timber for the wheel are enumerated. On a double support (called *ādhāra* and *upādhāra*), which rests on the axles, is raised a lofty structure which is provided with balconies (*bhadra*) and profusely decorated. It may have as many as nine storeys, the height of each upper storey being smaller than that of the one just preceding. The exact proportion is not given.

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The forms of cars are next discussed. With regard to their shapes, cars are divided into seven classes—*nabhasvad-bhadraka*, *prabhañjana-bhadraka*, *nivāta-bhadraka*, *pavana-bhadraka*, *prishada-bhadraka*, *indraka*-(or *chandraka*-) *bhadraka*, and *anila-bhadraka*. The first of these is square, the second hexagonal, the third should have two *bhadras*, and the fourth three *bhadras*, the fifth and the sixth should have ten *bhadras*, and the last one should be furnished with twelve *bhadras*.

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The description of the different shapes of cars is rather confusing. According to another classification given here, the square cars are called *nāgara*, the octagonal ones *drāviḍa*, the circular ones *vesara*, the hexagonal ones *āndhra*, and the oval ones *kāliṅga*.

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These cars, in accordance with the different purposes referred to above, have various kinds of wheels and other members. Thus a fighting car has three wheels, the car for mock-fighting has four wheels, one for ordinary festivals (*nityotsava*) has five wheels, one for special festivals (*mahotsava*) may have six, seven, eight, nine or ten wheels. In the same manner the number of *vedis* (platforms) varies according to the special purpose for which a car is to be used.

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Thus it is stated that the chariot of the universal monarch (*sārvabhauma*) should have one to nine *vedikās*, that of the *mahārāja* one to seven *vedikās*, that of the *narendra* one to five *vedikās*, and so forth. The cars of Vishṇu and Śiva should consist of one to nine *vedikās*, those of Buddhist and Jain deities one to seven *vedikās*, and in the case of other gods the number should be four, or one to five.

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These cars should be decorated with peacocks' feathers, chowries, arches (*toraṇa*), little bells, bright mirrors, fans and garlands. There should be also carved images of various deities, particularly on the upper part of the structure, while the basement is adorned with representations of lions, elephants, and crocodiles (*hari-kari-makara-rūpaiḥ*), with foliated ornamentation and with figures of dancers (*nāṭaka*), *bhūtas* and *yakshas*.

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Couches (*Śayana-vidhāna*)

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Couches are meant for the use of deities, the twice-born, and members of other castes. They are said to be of two kinds, the small (*bāla-paryaṅka*) and the large (*paryaṅka*), the one being distinguished from the other by its size alone.

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The measurement and various parts of the two kinds of couches are described separately. The width of the *bāla-paryaṅka* may vary from 11 to 25 *aṅgulas*, the increment being by 2 *aṅgulas*. This makes eight varieties. The *paryaṅka* proper admits of nine varieties, as they may be from 21 to 37 *aṅgulas* in width with increments of 2 *aṅgulas*.

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It may be pointed out that they are generally furnished with four legs, and castors are attached to the legs so that they may easily be moved from one place to another. The legs of royal couches should be decorated with lions. The proportion of breadth to length shows that couches are generally rectangular in shape.

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Special mention is made of swings suspended from four chains, which are said to be used by the gods, the Brahmans, the Kshatriyas, the Vaiśyas, etc.

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The material of which couches and seats (*āsana*) are constructed is the wood of certain trees. For the legs, special kinds of timber are recommended.

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THRONES (*Simhāsana-lakshaṇa-vidhāna*)

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The expression *simhāsana* implies a seat marked with a lion. This lion-seat or throne is made for the use of deities and kings. Royal thrones are divided into four classes. The *prathamāsana* is said to be fit for the first (*prathama*) coronation, the *maṅgala* throne for the coronation called *maṅgala*. The *vīra* throne for the *vīra* coronation, and the *vijaya* throne for the *vijaya* coronation. What is evidently meant is that these four thrones are employed for the four successive stages of the coronation of one and the same king.

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As for the deities, the *nityārchana* throne, as the name indicates, is used for daily worship, the *nityotsava* throne for ordinary festivities, the *viśeshārchana* throne for special worship, and the *mahotsava* throne for great festivals.

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Next comes a further division of thrones into ten kinds. An account of the general plan, as well as the measurements of the various parts of them, is given in detail. They are technically called *padmāsana*, *padmakeśara*, *padma-bhadra*, *śrībhadra*, *śrīviśāla*, *śrībandha*, *śrīmukha*, *bhadrāsana*, *padma-bandha* and *pāda-bandha*. Nine kinds of dimensions are given to each of the above-mentioned thrones. The right proportion in each case should be selected by the application of the rules of *shaḍ-varga*.

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Of the ten kinds, the first, *padmāsana*, is used as the throne for Śiva or Vishṇu, the *padma-keśara* for the other gods and for the *chakravartin*, the *padma-bhadra* for the *adhirāja* (i.e. the *mahārāja*), the *śrībhadra* is suitable for the *adhirāja* and the *narendra*, the *śrīviśāla* for the *narendra* and the *pārshṇika*, the *śrībandha* for the *pārshṇika* and the *paṭṭadhara*, the *śrīmukha* for the *maṇḍaleśa*, the *bhadrāsana* for the *paṭṭabhāj*, the *padma-bandha* for the *prāhāraka*, and the *pāda-bandha* throne for the *astragrāhin*. It is expressly stated that lion-shaped legs should not be made for the throne of the last class of kings; but in the case of all other kings, the thrones are marked with lions and furnished with six legs. They are generally placed facing the east. The thrones of deities should face the four quarters.

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At the end of the chapter the author says that the 'thrones of Vishṇu, Rudra, Jinaka, Indra, and all the other prominent gods, and also of the kings have thus been described.' It should be noticed that in the description itself no reference whatever is made to thrones of the Buddhist or Jain deities, as the term Jinaka would seem to imply.

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ARCHES (*Toraṇa-vidhāna*)

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The *toraṇa*, or arch, is stated to be an ornament for the thrones (*āsana*) of gods and kings. It is supported on dwarf pillars (*aṅghri*), which rest on the pedestal (*pīṭha*) of the image. The arch admits of various shapes. It may be circular, triangular, crescent-shaped, bow-shaped, or of any other suitable form. Directions for making these arches, as well as the measurements of their constituent parts, are given in detail. With regard to their ornamentation, arches are divided into four kinds, technically called *patra-toraṇa* (foliated arch), *pushpa-toraṇa* (floral arch), *ratna-toraṇa* (jewelled arch), and *chitra-toraṇa* (ornamental arch).

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The various ornaments of arches are then described in detail. The top of the *toraṇa* should be decorated with figures of the heavenly musicians, Tumburu and Nārada, while *makaras* (crocodiles) are placed at the sides. The arch is supported by leogryphs (*vyāli*), which are placed on both sides of the pillars. For the rest the *patra-toraṇa*, as the name indicates, is mainly adorned with foliated ornaments, the *pushpa-toraṇa* with flowers, and the *ratna-toraṇa* with jewels. Among the other decorative devices mentioned we find the effigies of different classes of semi-divine beings, such as *yakshas*, *vidyādharas*, *kinnaras*, and *kinnarīs*. At the end of the chapter it is said that arches may also be made without any ornamentation (*chītra-hīna*).

Linked texts (2)

Mānava Dharmaśāstra — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit
Tibetan translation ('Chi med mdzod) — Classical Tibetan