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Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c41.s1: The Types of Buildings

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c41.s1

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English

The Types of Buildings

v6.c41.s1.1

WITH A VIEW to ascertaining the position of the *Mānasāra* in relation to the non-architectural literature it will be necessary to discuss the points of similarity in detail. It is, however, practicable, in an article like this, to take into consideration only the architectural portions of works which deal with the subject specially. For the purpose of an elaborate treatment we propose to compare the *Mānasāra* with the *Agni-Purāṇa*, the *Garuḍa-Purāṇa*, the *Matsya-Purāṇa*, the *Bhavishya-Purāṇa*, the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, the *Kāmikāgama*, and the *Suprabhedāgama*.

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It has been pointed out at the outset that architecture comprises a variety of subjects, but it cannot be denied that the fundamental business of the architect is with buildings, residential, religious, and military. It appears to be a fashion among many peoples of the past, as of the present, to designate individual buildings by proper names, with or without a meaning.¹ It seems to have been a custom among the ancient Hindu architects to describe buildings under some such names. In the eight treatises we have proposed to compare in detail, we find buildings bearing proper names classified and described in the following way :

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¹ Compare, for instance, Whitehall, Guildhall, Mansion House, Cosy Corner, Gordon Castle, Benmore, Barnes Castle, Svastika, Vijaya, Vipulāṅka, Indra-kānta, Chatur-mukha, Pāñchāla, Drāviḍa Kamalā-Bhavana, Chitta-Viśrāma, etc.

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1. In the *Mānasāra* the main buildings are described in some thirteen chapters.² Their common features from bottom to top are given under storeys, varying from one to twelve. They are also classified under styles—Nāgara, Vesara, and Drāviḍa—chiefly in accordance with the shape of the topmost part³; under sizes⁴—as Śuddha, Miśra, and Saṁkīrṇa—in accordance with the materials of which they are built¹; under Jāti, Chhanda, Vikalpa, and Ābhāsa in accordance with the various lengths of the cubit with which the buildings are measured²; under Sthānaka, Āsana, and Śayana, which are otherwise called Saṁchita, Asaṁchita, and Apasaṁchita respectively³; and under shapes, Puṁliṅga (masculine), Strīliṅga (feminine)⁴ and Napuṁsaka (neuter).

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² Chapters XVIII to XXX, *see* the summary of contents in the preceding section under XVIII.

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³ For details of these styles, *see* the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *Nāgara*.

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⁴ Large, intermediate, and small.

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¹ (a) Śuddha, or pure, made of one material (brick, iron or wood); (*b*) Miśra, or mixed, made of two materials; (*c*) Saṁkīrṇa, or amalgamated, made of three or more materials. *M.*, XVIII, 139–142.

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² *M.*, XIX, 2–5.

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³ Referring respectively to height, breadth, and length, *M.*, XIX 7–9, 10–11. The three latter sets also refer to the postures of the idols in case of temples, namely, erect, sitting, and recumbent.

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⁴ Equiangular and rectangular respectively. But in case of temples, the former contains the male deities, while the latter may contain both female and male deities, *M.*, XIX, 14–17. For the neuter class, see the *Kāmikāgama* below.

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The details of the ninety-eight types of buildings, described according to the number of storeys, are given below. The numerical figures on the left indicate the serial numbers, and those on the right refer to the lines or verses of the chapters.

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I. The eight kinds of single-storeyed buildings with their characteristic features, Chapter XIX—

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(1) Vaijayantika, with round spire (*śīrsha*), pinnacle (*śīraḥ*), and neck (*gīrvā*) (line 166); (2) Bhoga has *karṇa* or ears (187); (3) Śrīviśāla has the *bhadra* or front porch in it (168); (4) Svastibandha has octagonal finial (*śīrsha*) (168); (5) Śrīkara has quadrangular *śikhara* or steeple (170); (6) Hastipṛishṭha has oval steeple (171); (7) Skandatāra has hexagonal spire and neck (172); (8) Keśara has the front porches in the centre of the side-towers at the corners of the roof, and its nose, head, and neck are round or quadrangular (173–175).⁵

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⁵ For further details, *see* the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *Ekabhūmi*.

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II. The eight kinds of two-storeyed buildings, Chapter XX (the general features are the same in all the eight kinds; the distinction lies in the different proportions given to the component parts from above the ground floor to the top)—

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(9) Śrīkara (lines 94, 2–9); (10) Vijaya (94, 10–15); (11) Siddha (94, 16–18); (12) Paushṭika (94, 19–25); (13) Antika (94, 25–27); (14) Adbhuta (94, 28–33); (15) Svastika (95, 34–41); and (16) Pushkala (94, 42-43). The projection, the general description, and the carvings on the doors, when these buildings are used as temples, are given (44-93, 96-116).¹

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III. The eight kinds of three-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXI (the general features and characteristic marks are similar to those of two-storeyed buildings)—

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(17) Śrīkānta (lines 2-11); (18) Āsana (12-21); (19) Sukhālaya (22-30); (20) Kesara (31-32); (21) Kamalāṅga (33-38); (22) Brahmakānta (39-40); (23) Merukānta (41-49); and (24) Kailāśa (50-52).¹

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¹ ^1 For further details, see the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *dvi-tala* and *tri-tala*.

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The general features, characteristic marks, and other details of the following kinds are similar to those of the two- and three-storeyed buildings—

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IV. The eight kinds of four-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXII—

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(25) Vishṇukānta (lines 3-12); (26) Chaturmukha (13-24); (27) Sadāśiva (25-33); (28) Rudrakānta (34-43); (29) Iśvarakānta (44-46); (30) Mañchakānta (47-57); (31) Vedikānta (58-59); and (32) Indrakānta (60-88).²

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V. The nine kinds of five-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXIII—

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(33) Airāvata (lines 3-12); (34) Bhūtakānta (13-15); (35) Viśvakānta (16-18); (36) Mūrtikānta (19-24); (37) Yamakānta (25-29); (38) Gṛihakānta (30-38); (39) Yajñakānta (33-40); (40) Brahmakānta; and (41-42) Mahākānta and Kalyāṇa.²

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VI. The thirteen kinds of six-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXIV—

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(41) Padmakānta (lines 3-12); (42) Kāntāra (13-14); (43) Sundara (15); (44) Upakānta (16); (45) Kamala-aksha (17-18); (46) Ratnakānta (19); (47) Vipulāṅka (20); (48) Jyoti(sh)kānta (50); (49) Saroruha (51-52); (50) Vipulākṛitika (53); (51) Svastikānta (53); (52) Nandyāvarta (54); and (53) Ikshukānta (55).²

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VII. The eight kinds of seven-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXV—

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(54) Puṇḍarīka (lines 3-23); (55) Śrīkānta (24); (56) Śrībhoga (25); (57) Dhāraṇa (26); (58) Pañjara (27); (59) Āśramāgāra (28); (60) Harmyakānta (29); and (61) Himakānta (30).²

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² ^2 For further details, see the writer's *Encyclopaedia*, under *chatus-tala*, *pañcha-tala*, *shaṭ-tala*, *sapta-tala*, *ashṭa-tala*, *nava-tala*, *daśa-tala*, and *ekādaśa-tala*.

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VIII. The eight kinds of eight-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXVI—

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(62) Bhūkānta (lines 3-21); (63) Bhūpakānta (22–28); (64) Svargakānta (29–34); (65) Mahākānta (35-39); (66) Janakānta (40); (67) Tapa(s)kānta (41–42); (68) Satyakānta (43–45); and (69) Devakānta (46–47).¹

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IX. The seven kinds of nine-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXVII—

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(70) Saurakānta (lines 5–9); (71) Raurava (10); (72) Chaṇḍita (11–12); (73) Bhūshaṇa (13–14); (74) Vivṛita (20–22); (75) Supratikānta (23–26); and (76) Viśvakānta (27–33).¹

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X. The six kinds of ten-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXVIII—

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(77) Bhūkānta (lines 6–8); (78) Chandrakānta (6–8); (79) Bhavanakānta (9–13); (80) Antarikshakānta (14–15); (81) Meghakānta (16–17); and (82) Abjakānta (18).¹

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XI. The six kinds of eleven-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXIX—

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(83) Śambhukānta (lines 3–7); (84) Iśakānta (8–9); (85) Chakrakānta (10–14); (86) Yamakānta (15–17); (87) Vajrakānta (18–24); and (88) Arkakānta (24–33).¹

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¹ For further details, *see* the writer’s *Encyclopaedia*, under *chatus-tala*, *pañcha-tala*, *shaṭ-tala*, *sapta-tala*, *ashṭa-tala*, *nava-tala*, *daśa-tala* and *ekadaśa-tala*.

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XII. The ten kinds of twelve-storeyed buildings, Chapter XXX—

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(83) Pāñchāla (lines 8–10); (90) Drāviḍa (8–10); (91) Madhyakānta (11–14); (92) Kāliṅgakānta (14–16); (93) Varāṭa (Virāṭa ?) (17–27); (94) Kerala (28–30); (95) Vaṁśakānta (31–32); (96) Māgadhakānta (33–34); (97) Jana(ka)kānta (33–36); and (98) Sphūrjaka (? Gurjaraka) (7, 37–84); description of the twelfth storey.²

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² These ten kinds are named, it should be noticed, after the historic places, well marked in the ancient geography of India, which cover the whole length and breadth of the continent. The topography of these places is described elsewhere (pp. 254–256). For the architectural details of these buildings, *see* the writer’s *Encyclopaedia*, under these ten terms. The description of the twelfth storey is given under *dvādaśa-tala*.

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2. *Agni-Purāṇa*, Chapter XLII, verses 1–9 (general plan), 10–25 (plan with reference to the idol), Chapter 104, vv. 1–11, 22–34 (further general plan), 11–21 (names, classes, shapes, and description of forty-five kinds of temples).

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Five divisions depending on five shapes (plans), each including nine kinds of temples (Chapter CIV, vv. 11-13)—

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I. Vairāja—quadrangular (square)—includes (1) Meru, (2) Mandara, (3) Vimāna, (4) Bhadra, (5) Sarvatobhadra, (6) Charuka (in the Kāmikāgama, XXXV, 87, 91 : Ruchaka), (7) Nandika, (8) Nandi-varddhana, and (9) Śrīvatsa (Chapter CIV, vv. 14, 15).

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II. Pushpaka—rectangular—includes (10) Ba(Va)labhi, (11) Gṛiharāja, (12) Śālāgṛiha or Sālāmandira, (13) Viśāla, (14) Sama, (15) Brahma-mandira, (16) Bhavana or Bhuvana, (17) Prabhava, and (18) Śivikāveśma (Chapter CIV, vv. 16, 17).

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III. Kailāśa—round—includes (19) Ba(va)laya, (20) Dundubhi, (21) Padma, (22) Mahā-padmaka, (23) Varddhanī, (24), Ushṇī, (25) Śaṅkha, (26) Kalaśa, and (27) Svavṛiksha (Chapter CIV, vv. 17-18).

v6.c41.s1.48

IV. Maṇika—oval (*vṛittāyata*)—includes (28) Gaja, (29) Vṛishabha, (30) Haṁsa, (31) Garutmat, (32) Ṛikshanāyaka, (33) Bhūshaṇa, (34) Bhūdhara, (35) Śrījaya, and (36) Pṛithivī-dhara (Chapter CIV, vv. 19-20).

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V. Trivishṭapa—octagonal—includes (37) Vajra, (38) Chakra, (39) Svastika, (40) Vajra-svastika, (41) Chitra, (42) Svastika-khaḍga, (43) Gadā, (44) Śrīkaṇṭha, and (45) Vijaya (Chapter CIV, vv. 20-21).

v6.c41.s1.50

3. *Garuḍa-Purāṇa* (Chapter XLVII) has exactly the same general plan (vv. 1-20, 32-47), five shapes, five classes (v. 21-23), and forty-five kinds of buildings (vv. 24-32), but the wording is not identical. The fourth class is read Mālikā (v. 21) in the general description, but the name ' Maṇika ' (v. 30) is given later on—

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I. Vairāja—square (vv. 21-22)—includes the same nine kinds, but (7) Nandika is read as Nandana, and (6) Charuka is correctly read as Ruchaka (vv. 24-25).

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II. Pushpaka—rectangular (vv. 22-23)—includes nine kinds where (10) Valabhī is correctly spelt, (13) Viśāla is read as Vimāna, which is apparently a mistake in the *Garuḍa-Purāṇa*, because (3) Vimāna is a kind of building included in the square (I) Vairāja class. But the reading of class (II) seems better in the *Garuḍa-Purāṇa*, which may be quoted—(10) Valabhī, (11) Gṛiharāja, (12) Śālāgṛiha, (13) Mandira, (14) Viśāla (text has Vimāna), (15) Brahmamandira, (16) Bhavana, (17) Uttambha, and (18) Śibikā-veśma (vv. 26-27).

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III. Kailāśa—round (vv. 21—23)—has nine kinds, again perhaps with better readings—(19) Valaya, (20) Dundubhi, (21) Padma, (22) Mahāpadma, (23) Mukuli (in place of Varddhanī), (24) Ushṇīshi, (25) Śaṅkha, (26) Kalaśa, and (27) Guvā-vṛiksha (vv. 28–29).

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IV. Maṇika—oval (vv. 30)—has nine kinds, of which (31), (32), and (33) are read as Garuḍa, Siṁha, and Bhūmukha respectively (vv. 29–30).

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V. Trivishṭapa—octagonal (vv. 21, 23)—has nine kinds, readings again seem better here—(37) Vajra, (38) Chakra, (39) Mushṭika (preceded by Babhru, vv. 31), (40) Vakra, (41) Svastika, (42) Khaḍga, (43) Gadā, (44) Śrīvṛiksha, and (45) Vijaya (vv. 31–32).

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4. The *Matsya-Purāṇa*, Chapter 269—

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The description of the general plan (verses 1–7) is followed by that of the special plan (vv. 8–20).

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The names (vv. 28–30), description of architectural details (vv. 31–46), measures (vv. 47–51), and division (vv. 53–54) of twenty types of buildings—

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(1) Meru has 100 cupolas (*śṛiṅga*), 16 storeys (*bhūmika*), many variegated steeples (*śikhara*), and is 50 cubits broad (vv. 28, 31, 53) ; (2) Mandara has 12 storeys, many steeples and faces, and is 45 cubits broad (vv. 28, 37, 47, 53) ; (3) Kailāśa has nine storeys (many steeples and faces), and is 40 cubits broad (vv. 32, 47, 53) ; (4) Vimāna-chchhanda has eight storeys, many steeples and faces (*ānana*), and is 34 cubits broad (vv. 25, 32, 33, 47, 53) ; (5) Nandi-vardhana has seven storeys, and is 32 cubits broad (vv. 29, 33, 48, 53) ; (6) Nandana has seven storeys, and is furnished with *vishāṇa* or horns, and is 30 cubits broad (vv. 29, 33, 48, 53) ; (7) Sarvatobhadra has five storeys, 16 corners with various shapes, is furnished with art galleries (*chitraśālā*), and is 30 cubits broad (vv. 29, 34, 35, 48, 53) ; (8) Valabhī-chchhandaka has five storeys, many steeples and faces, and is 16 cubits broad (vv. 35, 50, 53) ; (9) Vṛisha should resemble the height and length of the bull, be round and without corners, should have five cupolas, two storeys, and should be 4 cubits broad at the central hall (vv. 30, 36, 44, 45, 53) ; (10) Siṁha resembles the lion and is 16 cubits broad, is adorned with the famous *chandra-śālā* (top rooms, gable windows), and by the width of the front neck six storeys high (vv. 29, 36, 40, 49, 53) ; (11) Gaja resembles the elephant, and is 16 cubits broad, and has many *chandraśālās* or top rooms (vv. 36, 41, 49, 53) ; (12) Kumbha resembles the water-jar, has nine storeys, five cupolas (*aṇḍas*), and is 16 cubits broad (vv. 37, 49, 53) ; (13) Samudraka has 16 sides around, 2 *chandraśālās* (top rooms) at the two sides, two storeys (vv. 38, 53) ; (14) Padma has three storeys, 16 corners, a variegated steeple, and is 20 cubits broad (vv. 30, 39, 49, 53) ; (15) Garuḍa has the bird-design around, seven storeys, three top rooms, and is 8 cubits broad, and there should be 86 (?) compartments (*bhūmika*, *lit.* storeys, v. 42) all round the outside (vv. 41, 43, 51). There is a similar Garuḍa building with ten storeys, and a second Padmaka-building with two storeys more (? 12 storeys, v. 43) ; (16) Haṁsa, is 10 cubits broad (vv. 36, 51) ; (17) Vartula is 20 cubits broad (vv. 29 49, 53). No special description is given of the remaining : (18) Chaturaśra (four-cornered, vv. 28, 53) ; (19) Ashṭāśra (eight-cornered, v. 29, 53) ; (20) Shoḍaśāsra (sixteen-cornered, vv. 29, 53).¹

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¹ Compare the three divisions of these buildings according to sizes.

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Similar types of buildings are described almost in the same way in both the *Bhavishya-Purāṇa* and the *Brihat-saṁhitā*.

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5. The *Bhavishya-Purāṇa*, Book I, Chapter CXXX, names (vv. 23–26), description of the architectural details and measures (vv. 27–35) of the twenty kinds of buildings (same as in the *Brihat-saṁhitā*, *see* below)—

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(1) Meru, 39 cubits high and 32 cubits broad, has 12 storeys, various windows (*kuhara*), and four gateways (v. 27).

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(2) Mandara, 30 cubits broad, and has ten storeys (v. 28).

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(3) Kailāśa, 28 cubits broad, has steeples and eight storeys (v. 28).

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The description of the following is clearer in the *Brihat-saṁhitā*, quoted below ; the names may be given here—

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(4) Vimāna, with latticed windows (v. 29).

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(5) Nandana (v. 29).

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(6) Samudga (v. 30), Samudra (v. 24) as in the *Brihat-saṁhitā* (LVI, 28, 5).

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(7) Padma (v. 30).

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(8) Garuḍa (v. 31).

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(9) Nandi-vardhana (v. 28, Naṁdī, v. 31).

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(10) Kuñjara (v 32).

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(11) Gṛiharāja (v. 32), *Brihat-saṁhitā* (LVI, 25) has Guharāja.

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(12) Vṛisha (v. 33).
(13) Haṁsa (v. 33).
(14) Ghaṭa (v. 33).
(15) Sarvatobhadra (v. 34).
(16) Siṁha (v. 35).
(17) Vṛitta (as in the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, LVI, 29, 49); but here (v. 33) it reads Vṛisha-like (12), which is apparently a mistake (*see* v. 30).

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No special description is given of the remaining—

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(18) Chatushkoṇa, four-cornered (v. 25), *Matsya-Purāṇa* (Chapter CCLXIX, vv. 28, 53) has Chaturasra ; and *Bṛihat-saṁhitā* (VI, 28) has Chaturasra.

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(19) Ashṭāsra, octangular (v. 25).

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(20) Shoḍaśāsra, sixteen-cornered (v. 25).

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Varāhamihira seems to have taken these from an earlier *Purāṇa* and improved them in the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*.

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6. The *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, LVI, 1–19—

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The religious merits acquired by building temples (vv. 1–2); suitable sites—in the garden, wood, banks of rivers (seas), tanks (vv. 3–8); ground (v. 9); general plan (v. 10); situation of doors (v. 10); comparative measures of length, breadth, and height (v. 11), of the adytum (*garbha*, v. 12), of the doors and their different parts (vv. 12–14); carvings on the door (v. 15); comparative measures of the idol, pedestal, and door (v. 16); the heights of storeys (v. 29–30).

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This is followed by a classification (vv. 17–19) and an account of the architectural details (vv. 20–28) of the same twenty kinds of temples (*prāsāda*) as are given in the *Matsya-Purāṇa* and the *Bhavishya-Purāṇa*. The names of these buildings are given below, details being almost the same as in the *Purāṇas*—

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(1) Meru (v. 20).
(2) Mandara (v. 21).
(3) Kailāśa (v. 21).
(4) Vimāna-(chchhanda) (vv. 17–22).
(5) Nandana (v. 22).
(6) Samudga (v. 23).
(7) Padma (v. 23).
(8) Garuḍa (v. 24).
(9) Nandivardhana (v. 24).
(10) Kuñjara (v. 25).

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(11) Guharāja (v. 25).
(12) Vṛisha (v. 26).
(13) Haṁsa (v. 26).
(14) Ghaṭa (v. 26).
(15) Sarvatobhadra (v. 27).
(16) Siṁha (v. 28).
(17) Vṛitta (vv. 18–28).
(18) Chatush-koṇa (vv. 18–28).
(19) Ashṭāsra (v. : 18–28).
(20) Shoḍaśāsra (vv. 18–28).

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7. The *Kāmikāgama*,¹ *Paṭala* LV— The four classes— Jāti (verse 128), Chhanda (v. 129), Vikalpa (v. 130), and Ābhāsa (v. 130).

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¹ This *Paṭala* refers to the description of a single building and its component parts. So also does the *Paṭala* XLV (see under *Mālikā*), it is named *Mālikā-(lakshaṇa)* and does not mean anything but *Prāsāda: cf. Prāsāda-vyāsa-dīrghochchā proktā prāsāda-mālikā* (11, 4).

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*Paṭala* XLV— Further classifications—
(1) Saṁchita, Apasaṁchita, and Upasaṁchita (v. 6).
(2) Nāgara (vv. 6, 12, 13), Drāviḍa (vv. 6, 14, 15), and Vesara (vv. 7, 16, 18).
(3) Jāti (vv. 7, 19), Chhanda (vv. 7–20), and Vikalpa (vv. 7–20).
(4) Śuddha (vv. 7, 21), Miśra (vv. 7, 22), and Saṁkīrṇa (vv. 7, 22).
(5) Puṁ-liṅga, or masculine, also called Saṁchita (vv. 8, 9), Strīliṅga, or feminine (vv. 9, 10), and Napuṁsaka, or neuter (vv. 11).

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This class (5) does not refer (like the *Mānasāra*) to the sexes of the deities. Here they appear more like residential buildings; their characteristic features are determined by architectural details. The distinguishing marks of the divisions in the other four classes (1 to 4) are similar to those of the *Mānasāra* noticed above.

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In *Paṭala* XXXV, Śālās, in almost the sense of Prāsāda, are divided into five classes: Sarvatobhadra (vv. 87, 88), Vardhamāna (vv. 87, 88), Svastika (vv. 87, 89), Nandyāvarta (vv. 87, 90), and Charuka (vv. 87, 91).

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Their technical names²—
(1) Sindhuka (XLV, vv. 23–28), (2) Saṁpūrṇa (vv. 29–30), (3) Merukūṭa (v. 31), (4) Kshema (vv. 32–34), (5) Śiva (vv. 35–38), (6)

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² For further details, see the writer's *Encyclopaedia* under these terms and *Mālikā*.

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Harmya (vv. 39-40), (7) Saumya (v. 40), (8) Viśāla (v. 41), (9) Sarvakalyāṇa (vv. 43-49), (10) Vijaya (v. 50), (11) Bhadra (v. 51), (12) Raṅgamukha (v. 52), (13) Alpa (vv. 53-54), (14) Koṇa (vv. 55-58), (15) Geya (vv. 58*a*-59), (16) Sāra (v. 60), (17) Pushkara (vv. 61, 63), (18) Adbhuta (v. 61*a*), (19) Saṁkīrṇa (62), and (20) Daṇḍa (v. 64).

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8. The *Suprabhedāgama, Paṭala* XXXI (named Prāsāda)— Three styles of temples—Nāgara, Drāviḍa, and Vesara (vv. 38-39). Different kinds of temples—(1) Kailāśa, (2) Mandara, (3) Meru, (4) Himavat, (5) Nishadha (also called Nilaparvata, Mahendra), (6) Nalinaka, (7) Pralinaka, (8) Nandyāvarta, (9) Śrivarta (? Śrīpada), and (10) Parvata (vv. 40-52).

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Maṇḍapas are first divided into four classes— Deva-maṇḍapa, Snapana (bath)-maṇḍapa, Vṛisha (bull)-, Nandi-maṇḍapa, and Nṛitta (music)-maṇḍapa (vv. 96-97, 98-99) ; and further classified under epithets, Nandavṛitta, Śriyāvṛitta, Vīrāsana, Jayabhadra, Nandyāvarta, Maṇibhadra, and Viśāla (vv. 110-104).

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The attention of readers is invited to the lists of the buildings described in the eight works under observation.

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The list in the *Mānasāra* contains in 12 classes (storeys) 98 types of buildings ; the *Agni-Purāṇa* has in five classes (or divisions) 45 types ; the *Garuḍa-Purāṇa* also has in the same five classes (or divisions) the same 45 types ; the *Matsya-Purāṇa* has in three divisions 20 types ; the *Bhavishya-Purāṇa* has left out the broader divisions but contains the twenty types ; the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā* in the very same way contains the twenty types ; the *Kāmikāgama* has in three divisions (of various kinds) twenty types ; and the *Suprabhedāgama* has left out all the minor divisions, but preserves the most important one, namely, the three styles (Nāgara, Vesara, Drāviḍa), which comprise ten types of buildings.

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The various broader divisions, such as Śuddha, Saṁchita, Sthānaka, Jāti, Puṁliṅga, etc., we have seen in the *Mānasāra*, are repeated in the same terms and same sense as in the *Āgamas*. The most important division into the styles—the Nāgara, Vesara, and Drāviḍa—is also preserved intact in the latter works. These are purely architectural divisions, and they are not taken into consideration in the non-architectural treatises like the *Purāṇas* and the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*. Even the broadest division into storeys, under which the *Mānasāra* describes the buildings in 12 or 13 chapters, has lost its prominence in the latter works.

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Thus the *Mānasāra* has the largest number of the types, namely, 98. The *Agni-Purāṇa* and the *Garuḍa-Purāṇa* have 45 types each. The *Matsya-Purāṇa*, the *Bhavishya-Purāṇa*, the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, and the *Kāmikāgama* have twenty types each. The *Spurabhedāgama* has the smallest number of types, namely ten.

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The technical names of these types of buildings are, as we have seen above, common in many cases. We have also seen that in some instances the architectural details are identical. The lists of the *Agni-Purāṇa* and the *Garuḍa-Purāṇa* on the one hand, and the *Matsya-Purāṇa* the *Bhavishya-Purāṇa*, and the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā* on the other, are strikingly similar. Of the works containing the lists of twenty types, the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā* has the best description. In respect of brevity, explicitness, and precision, the *Suprabhedāgama*, which contains the smallest number of types, surpasses all; and it happens that the smaller the types the better the description.

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The common names of the types, the identity of their details, and the similarity in the description may not be accidental. The grades in the linguistic style and in the explicitness and precision of the description do not seem unconnected; while the variations in the number of types of buildings treated in these works also may not be meaningless. Before hazarding an opinion, it will be better to compare some of the other important points of similarity between the *Mānasāra* and the architectural portions of other works.

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Amongst others, the three crucial features in architecture, at least so far as these ancient records are concerned, seem to be the measurement, the orders or columns, and the styles. Similarities in these respects are hardly accidental and may be ascribed to a common origin.

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