Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c41.s16.t2: Po Nagar Group
Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c41.s16.t2
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Po Nagar Group
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The Po Nagar temple, otherwise known as ‘ the goddess of the city,’ is situated, facing east, on a small hillock at the entrance of a valley. ‘ It commands a good view of the lagune at the foot of the hillock and of the sea close by.’
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The temples were built within an enclosing wall in two rows from north to south, each containing three. The principal temple is in the front row. ‘ A steep staircase leads to a lower terrace containing an imposing hall with a colonnade.’ There appears to have been a gateway also.
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The superstructure of the main temple, wherein is installed a beautiful image of Umā, ‘ consists of a small member of ogival-shape, superimposed upon a bigger one of the same shape. Each of these stands upon two pilasters, between which, at the bottom, is a human figure decorated with a *mukuṭa* (crown) and with hands joined near the breast.’ ‘ The roof consists of four stages. The interior of the roof is a pyramidal vault, ending in a long chimney to which are attached, at the height of the third stage of the roof, two cross-pipes which extend over the entire summit of the building. The vestibule is a copy of the main building in all its essential features.'¹
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¹ Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, pp. 252, 251 ; Parmentier, *loc. cit.*, Plate XXLI.
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This appears to be the best preserved and most beautiful of all temples in Champa.
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One other temple of this group has a peculiar roof, consisting of a single curvilinear pyramidal dome of elegant shape, with two bulb-shaped stones as finials looking like the phallus of Śiva.
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From inscriptions it is clear that there were several other buildings at Po Nagar. One of these has been identified as an apsidal Buddhist *chaitya*, with a central nave and two aisles.² In another inscription it is stated that 'King Satyavarma built a new temple and installed therein a new *mukha-liṅga*, together with images of other gods and goddesses.' In a third inscription of a.d. 817, Senapati Par is stated to have 'erected three temples with *maṇḍapas* (pavilions) and gates and installed gods and goddesses.'³
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² Parmentier, Plate XXI, Vol. I, p. 127, quoted by Majumdar.
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³ For further details, *vide* Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, p. 258 : for inscriptions, Book III, pp. 41–218.
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The Po Hai temples⁴ on the top of a hillock consist of three shrines, facing east, in two different levels. The principal one is enclosed by a wall. 'The absence of corner towers brings out very prominently the resemblance of this type of temples with the storeyed *stūpas* of India, from which it seems to have been ultimately derived.'⁵
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⁴ Parmentier, *loc. cit.*, Parts I to III, pp. 29 *et seq.*
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⁵ Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, p. 254.
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The Po Dam group consists of six temples,⁶ also situated on a hill, but face the south, and the upper storeys of one with curved roof resemble some small temple in Boro-Budur.
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⁶ Parmentier, Plates VI and VII; Majumdar, p. 255.
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The Po Rome temples consist of the principal shrine and another building.⁷
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⁷ Parmentier, Plates VIII to X; Majumdar, p. 255.
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The Po Klong Garai temple comprises six buildings, built on a peak, commanding a fine view.⁸
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⁸ Parmentier, Plates XI to XIV; Majumdar, p. 255.
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The Ho Lai temples consist of three shrines built on a plain, and the Hung Thank group of five temples at the foot of a hill.⁹
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⁹ Parmentier, Plates XV to XIX; Majumdar, p. 256 ; and Parmentier, Plates XX and XXI : Majumdar, p. 256.
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The remains of a few cave temples also have been found at several places in Champa. The Phu Duoc cave is oval in shape. ‘The inner chamber has a vaulted roof, and two cells radiate from it.’ ‘The marble mountains near Hos Que contain several caves round a central hall, which is, however, open to the sky.’ ‘The caves of Phong Nha are of massive proportions.’ This cave contains an image of Buddha and some other sculptures. There are some hundred inscriptions, one of which appears to contain the word ‘Sāriputra,’ thus indicating a Buddhistic sanctuary. The Chua Hang cave also contains a small image of Buddha. The caves near the Lac-Son village appear to have been ‘transformed into Buddhist sanctuaries by the Chams.’ In these caves there are some thirty-six inscriptions.¹
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¹ Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, pp. 259–260; Parmentier, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, pp. 218, Fig. 41, p. 317, Fig. 69, pp. 542–548, quoted by Majumdar.
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The sculptures in connexion with the temples and caves comprise the images of both gods and goddesses, kings and queens, men and women, and animals. The actual iconographic proportions in *Tāla* or any other system are not available. But Dr. Majumdar declares that ‘the features, at least of the upper part of the body, are well proportioned and the expression of face is pleasing.’ But he comments that, ‘like the Indian art, the images of gods in later periods became more and more deformed, till they assumed sometimes a monstrous appearance.’ The figures of *dvārapālas* (doorkeepers) in temples are cited as examples.² Some of the human figures, comprising praying ones, mounted on elephants, lions, *apsaras* (nymphs), demons, etc., as also of musicians, are stated to be ‘really charming.’ The bas-reliefs on pedestals are stated to be so good as to be compared with those of Java.²
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² For further details, *vide* Majumdar ‘Champa,’ pp. 263–271; and Parmentier, *loc. cit.*, Figs. 78 to 107.