[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Architecture and art](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art) › [Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture)](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927) › v7 # Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v7: Volume 7 Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v7 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [v7.c43 An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43) — 16 parts - [v7.c44 Foreword](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44) — 31 parts - [v7.c45 Preface to the First Edition](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45) — 32 parts - [v7.c46 The Order of the Roman Characters and the Method of Transliteration Adopted](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c46) — 7 parts - [v7.c47 An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c47) — 8,051 parts - [v7.c48 Bibliography](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c48) — 17 parts - [v7.c49 Indian Architecture According to Mānasāra-Śilpa-Śāstra: Opinions and Reviews](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c49) — 536 parts ### Volume 7 ### An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture ### [v7.c43.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.1) SVASTIKA MANSION (FRONT VIEW) ### [v7.c43.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.2) AN ### [v7.c43.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.4) BY PRASANNA KUMAR ACHARYA, I.E.S. M.A. (CAL.), PH.D. (LEYDEN), D.LIT. (LONDON) HEAD OF THE ORIENTAL DEPARTMENTS PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT, UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD ### [v7.c43.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.6) MANASARA SERIES : VOLUME VII ### [v7.c43.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.7) PUBLISHED BY THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON, NEW YORK, BOMBAY CALCUTTA, MADRAS CHINA, JAPAN ### [v7.c43.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.8) MUNSHI RAM MANOHAR LAL SANSKRIT & HINDI BOOK-SELLERS NAI SARAK, DELHI-6. ### [v7.c43.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.9) PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, PRINTING AND STATIONERY, U. P., ALLAHABAD, INDIA ### [v7.c43.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.10) ‘What the learned world demand of us in India is to be quite certain of our data, to place the monumental record before them exactly as it now exists, and to interpret it faithfully and literally.’ ### [v7.c43.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.11) MĀNASĀRA SERIES ### [v7.c43.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.12) Volume I—A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture (1927). ### [v7.c43.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.13) Volume II—Indian Architecture according to \*Mānasāra Śilpaśāstra\* (1927). ### [v7.c43.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.14) Volume III—\*Mānasāra\*—Sanskrit Text with Critical Notes (1934). ### [v7.c43.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.15) Volume IV—Architecture of \*Mānasāra\*—Translation in English (1934). ### [v7.c43.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.16) Volume V—Architecture of \*Mānasāra\*—Plates i-cxxxv (Architectural), cxxxvi-clvii (Sculptural) (1934). ### [v7.c43.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.17) Volume VI—Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad (1946). ### [v7.c43.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c43.18) Volume VII—An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture (1946). ### Foreword ### [v7.c44.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.1) This is the seventh and the last volume of the \*Mānasāra\* series so far as the present writer is concerned. A few more volumes are, however, required to complete the work. Those new volumes will have to deal with the practical conclusions and workable plans and designs. This remaining work will involve an additional expenditure and an engineering study and draughtsmen's survey, estimate, calculations and comparisons with the few extant structures referred to in the writer's sixth volume, the \*Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad\*. In fulfilment of the fateful prediction of the late Professor E. J. Rapson of Cambridge University, the whole of the official career of the present writer commencing from the eventful year of 1914 has been fully occupied in preparing and seeing through press some 5,000 pages of these seven volumes. As the decree of fate would have it the war of 1914–18 caused from the very beginning of this task all possible interruption, risk and inconvenience while the work was carried out in London, Oxford, Cambridge, and Leyden. The difficult Indian conditions presented the familiar dilemma either to give up the self-imposed task altogether as is usually done by us after securing a degree and an appointment to a permanent post, or to carry it through, without much encouragement and assistance from any quarter, shouldering in addition to the peculiar duties of an occasionally unfortunate Professor of an Indian University the heavy burden of research. The unusual exigencies of the reconstructed Allahabad University demanded of the writer preparation and delivery of lectures to B. A., M. A., and Research classes up to 30 times per week and never less than 18, and also to do the departmental administration, and the routine work of various committees and examinations. ### [v7.c44.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.2) Contrary to the Sadler Committee's policy recommended for the new type of Indian Universities research activities even for the professors of the highest rank became practically of no importance, the teaching and social activities, as in schools and colleges, being much better appreciated by the authorities. Thus for instance our autonomous University considered it a useless waste of public funds to include a few pages in its annual report in order to give publicity to the mere titles of papers and books written and published by their teachers. Our non-interfering Government authorities also ceased to take any notice of their own servants who were sent on 'foreign service,' or rather banished to the universities. ### [v7.c44.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.3) The great educationist Governor, late Sir Harcourt Butler, sanctioned the cost of publication of these volumes to be advanced from the public funds before the delegation of the writer to the Allahabad University. But he left to Sir Claude de la Fosse, who was the first Vice-Chancellor of the reconstructed Allahabad University for a few months, to settle the terms of the publications including the author's royalty and reward. Sir Harcourt was sorry to learn of the changes which had taken place since his retirement from India and was 'shocked' when he was told in London in 1933 that an Indian successor of Sir Claude, as the Head of the Education Department of the Government, actually questioned in an official correspondence 'the public importance of printing Indian Architectural researches.' ### [v7.c44.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.4) The commitment of his predecessor had, however, to be carried out, and the Government, at the suggestion of again an Indian Adviser to the Governor, have since decided that after the realization of the full sum of money advanced by the Government for the cost of printing and publishing through the Oxford University Press, the further sale-proceeds, if there be any, will go to the successors of the writer. This is certainly a business arrangement. But the question of profits was not unfortunately considered when the first five volumes were published, for, the first two volumes published in 1927 actually gave a small profit to the Government of Rs. 300 to Rs. 400 despite the fact that only 250 copies were then published for circulation among scholars and that the prices of those volumes were fixed not as a business proposition, but merely to realize the cost of publication. ### [v7.c44.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.5) Naturally under such circumstances one would not feel encouraged to put in further labour and incur enormous expenditure, which are needed for the preparation of the remaining volumes and completion of the series. And there is not much hope either that the Governments and the various corporations, municipal boards, and other authorities who sanction the plan of a private building or erect a public structure will interest themselves in introducing an Indian policy in architecture until the new order following the present devastating war comes into being and until the new nations are able to rebuild and repair the rackless destruction. In the pre-war and peaceful times, however, facilities were freely provided by the State, especially in the big European and American cities like London, Leyden, Paris, Berlin, Rome, Washington, New York, etc., to hold extramural evening classes and deliver popular lectures on architecture. Cities like Milan used to hold perpetual exhibition of model houses in order to educate the public in the construction of suitable dwellings. Perhaps a time will come even in countries like India, when it may be considered barbarous to question ‘the public importance of architectural researches.’ The common sense of civilized and progressive peoples has recognized that residential buildings are more important in some respects than even food and clothes. It is well known that among the amenities of life, houses afford in a large degree not only comfort and convenience but also health and longevity of life, safety, and security. Nomads are not considered civilized; they are not attached to any locality; they have no fixed hearth and home; they are not inclined to spend their fortune in erecting dignified edifices, everlasting ancestral residences, memorials, monuments, temples, churches, mosques, mausoleums, towers of silence, monasteries and pagodas. The art and culture of a people are reflected and preserved in such monuments. They sustain and stimulate national pride. Thus the architectural structures differ in various countries to suit their economic and climatic conditions, weather and soil, taste and aspiration, and material, moral and spiritual progress. It is, therefore, necessary to settle the architectural policy of each country in its own way. For India no better authority containing the experience of generations and experiments of centuries will ever be available than what is revealed by the \*Mānasāra\* series. ### [v7.c44.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.6) Apart from supplying cultural and historical information these volumes contain a key which when understood may help the tackling of Indian housing problems. It has been shewn and recognized by discerning authorities that whatever elements have been introduced to India by the Persians, Moghals, Pathans, and the Europeans, have failed to suit the Indian climatic and soil conditions. Neither the desert houses of Arabia nor the rain-coats and the snow covers of European countries can ever suit the peculiar conditions of India. Experience of generations and experiments of centuries are contained in our \*Vāstu-śāstras\* (science of architecture). Like the Indian dietary of predominantly vegetarian dishes and Indian clothes of loose types, Indian houses of our Śāstra (scientific) styles are naturally more suitable for us. A wide dissemination of an accurate knowledge of true Indian architecture as revealed for the first time in these volumes must be the first step of the housing reform in India. ### [v7.c44.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.7) The present volume is a revised and enlarged edition of the writer's \*Dictionary of Hindu Architecture\* which was published in 1927, without any plates. Its change of title to \*An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture\* was originally suggested to the London University and missed by several learned scholars. A respected one¹ commented in his review of the \*Dictionary\* on this point very strongly: ‘The \*Dictionary\* is a book which is so well done that it appears to be no exaggeration to say that for many decades it cannot be improved upon unless, of course, the South reveals to us more hidden treasures. If there is anything to object to, it is the title of the book, which does less than justice to it. ‘‘Encyclopaedia’’ would be a fitter title. The term ‘‘Dictionary’’ is associated in our minds with word-meanings, while Dr. Acharya's work is very much more than ‘‘word-meaning.’’ Each term is followed by its meanings, mostly technical, an exhaustive account of the subject, and references to standard works of a wide range of literature. Thus, it will be seen, the work deserves a better title than ‘‘Dictionary.’’ In fact Dr. Acharya himself suggested to the London University the compiling of ‘‘An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture,’’ and it appears to have been a mere freak of fortune that when the University decided to entrust the learned Doctor with the work of compiling, they chose the term ‘‘Dictionary.’’ They appear to have been led to do this by the nature of the usual run of work done by modern scholars who in many cases have the unhappy knack of ‘‘shirking work’’; but in being led away by the prejudice, the University were unfair to their \*alumnus\*, who has, by this work, more than justified the title that he had himself suggested. . . . It is a matter of special gratification to us of the Allahabad University that we have at the head of our Sanskrit Department a scholar capable of doing work which, as a monument of industry and patience, compares favourably with the best of that class of scholarly work which has hitherto been regarded as \*German\*.’² ### [v7.c44.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.8) ¹ Mahāmahopādhyāya Dr. Sir Ganganatha Jha, \*Indian Review\*, March, 1928. ### [v7.c44.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.9) ² For similar comments by several other Reviewers, please see the concluding appendix of this volume and also pp. 1A to 11A of the writer's \*Architecture of Mānasāra\* (Volume IV of the \*Mānasāra\* Series). ### [v7.c44.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.10) The distinguished artist, Dr. Abanindra Nath Tagore, c.i.e., observes also that the \*Dictionary\* is ‘in the nature of an Encyclopaedia embracing all the existing treatises on Indian art. He (\*the author\*) has herein presented before us all the information that so long lay hidden and scattered all over the world . . . it may be appropriately called the \*Mahābhārata\* of the literature on Indian art, for, in it we find all that there is to know about Indian art. . . . Hitherto it has been extremely difficult to be able to read all the connected literature that is to be found in libraries whether in India or outside. Everyone of us does not know the language in which the treatises are written. Moreover, most of the original texts are preserved in distant lands. In the circumstances, a volume of this nature, written in English and containing as perfect a compendium as is possible, of all the existing treatises on art, came to be a necessity, not only for us but for foreign artists as well. . . . I cannot adequately express the extent to which I shall be able to make use of it . . . and the profit which my pupils will derive from it.’¹ ### [v7.c44.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.11) ¹ Translated by Mr. B. N. Lahiri, m.a., i.p., from the \*Pravāsi\*, April, 1928. ### [v7.c44.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.12) ‘Students of Indian architecture should be grateful to him (\*author\*) for accomplishing with such thoroughness a task which has been long overdue, and which must have entailed a tremendous amount of patient and often disinteresting work, in a number of different languages. The \*Dictionary of Hindu Architecture\* contains all the architectural terms used in the \*Mānasāra\* and in the known \*Vāstu-śāstras\*, published inscriptions and other archaeological records with full references and explanations.’² ### [v7.c44.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.13) ² \*The Times Literary Supplement\*, May 31, 1928. ### [v7.c44.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.14) ‘Professor Acharya’s \*Dictionary of Hindu Architecture\* is a monumental work, the first of its kind. It deals with three thousand words relating to architecture and sculpture and cognate arts. Under each term is brought together all the necessary information in the form of a short article illustrated with copious quotations from the ancient printed books, as well as manuscripts, the general literature and the archaeological records. And this has been done with a thoroughness and accuracy which are the author’s own. Full quotations for bringing out each and every shade of the meaning of a word are given. In effect the \*Dictionary\* becomes more of an Encyclopaedia rather than a dictionary.’¹ ### [v7.c44.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.15) ¹ The \*Pioneer\*, February 13, 1928. ### [v7.c44.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.16) In consideration of such comments and in view of the fact that illustrative plates containing measured drawings and photographs have been added, the Government and the Oxford University Press have agreed to the present title. But ‘the freak of fortune’ truly designated by Sir Ganganatha has continued to the very end in other respects as referred to in the opening paragraphs and mentioned later on. ### [v7.c44.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.17) The prediction that ‘for many decades it cannot be improved upon’ has also proved literally true. ‘No hidden treasures’ have been revealed in any quarter. All the new publications including all archaeological explorations and reports which came out between 1928 and 1943 have been closely searched. The very extensive volumes, reports, and explorations relating to Central Asia which have been largely due to Sir Aurel Stein, as well as the voluminous publications of the Dutch, the French and lately of the Indian scholars relating to the Far East and Insulindia have also been patiently gone through.² But not many new ‘terms’ have been discovered. The new terms added in this volume will be hardly one or two per cent. of the original list. But a number of new ‘articles’ under the old and the new terms have been added. Articles like the playhouse (under RAṄGA) and Svastika symbol, etc., contain all information which is at present available. Articles on fine arts (under KALĀ) and Indo-Persian Architecture, and Maya Architecture of Central America, etc., are also new.³ ### [v7.c44.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.18) ² \*See\* further reference to these works under “Sources” in the Preface which follows this Foreword (pp. xvii–xviii) and also the Bibliography, pp. 679–84. ### [v7.c44.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.19) ³ Another additional and very expensive effort, which is not directly concerned with the present volume, has been made in erecting a residential house for a demonstration, the result of which is elaborated in the Preface of Volume VI (\*Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad\*). ### [v7.c44.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.20) Thus although the matter has largely increased, Lt.-Col. D. W. Crighton decided to reduce the unwieldy bulk of the volume by the device of smaller types, larger pages, and closer printing, which, it is hoped, will not cause any inconvenience to the readers. Colonel Crighton and Mr. M. G. Shome, his successor, as the Superintendent of Government Press, have endeavoured to produce a faultless volume comparable with the best of European publications. ### [v7.c44.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.21) The original plan and scope as well as the ideal and general method followed in the \*Dictionary\*¹ have been retained in this \*Encyclopaedia\* also.² ### [v7.c44.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.22) ¹ See pp. x-xii. ### [v7.c44.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.23) ² For details, see pp. xx-xxii. ### [v7.c44.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.24) What remains to be added refers to further instances of the 'freak of fortune.' Under the war conditions of 1914-18 the work was commenced and under the present devastating war conditions it is completed. Among various other disappointments it is painful to recall that in April, 1939, Lt.-Col. D. W. Crighton took to England about 250 pages manuscripts of the present volume and after the declaration of the war in the fateful month of September, the Colonel wrote that he would send back the manuscripts together with his suggestions for printing. His suggestions were received and have been followed but the original manuscripts never came back. They had to be prepared again with all the annoyance and labour involved in such a process. Some of the new entries and additions and alterations made in the missing pages during the past twelve years may have been, however, lost altogether. Those who work along this line may share the writer's disappointment and will recognize the fact that it is hardly possible for a writer to re-write an article in the same spirit, with the same fulness and satisfaction as at the first inspiration. ### [v7.c44.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.25) Another unfortunate incident alluded to in the Preface refers to the eye-trouble which started as the result of a very close examination and decipherment for several years of a huge quantity of very badly preserved old manuscripts on ‘Śilpa-śāstras written in five different scripts, and of some 50,000 lines of inscriptions.' Over and above this the eyes were severely exercised by the reading of three proofs of some 5,000 pages of these seven volumes, of which not only every word but also every letter and every line thereof had to be minutely scrutinized at least three times each. All this strain for the past thirty years aggravated the ailment to such an extent that the proofs of this last volume had to be read, despite medical advice, with one eye only, the other being unserviceable and requiring a risky and expensive operation which had to be postponed with a view to completing this work. ### [v7.c44.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.26) I take this occasion to record my most respectful thanks to the Government of the United Provinces for generously advancing the cost of publication of all the seven volumes. My respectful acknowledgments are also due to the Government of India, especially to the Department of Archaeology whose Directors General and Provincial Superintendents very generously supplied all the necessary photographs of the extant monuments and reprints from the Government publications. I also take this opportunity to express my indebtedness to the Governments of Siam, Netherlands (Java and Sumatra), and French Indo-China for supply of photographic views of Indian monuments in Insulindia and for permission to reprint certain plates from their official publications. Mr. S. C. Mukerjee, B.A., C.D., A.R.C., A.I.I.A., and his draughtsmen have supplied all the measured drawings and the plates for the illustration of certain objects of which no extant examples are available. These drawings and plates had to be prepared from the description found in the texts and required great skill in representation. Thus they have earned my gratitude. ### [v7.c44.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.27) Lt.-Col. D. W. Crighton, and, after his retirement, his successor, as the Superintendent of the Government Printing and Stationery, Mr. M. G. Shome, and their staff have endeavoured to produce a faultless volume. Colonel Crighton's plan and arrangement of the matter has been strictly followed. In his great wisdom he cast the new types for the last two volumes of the series and stocked the required amount of paper excepting those for plates before the war of 1939 was declared. I shall always remain grateful to Colonel Crighton, Mr. Shome and their staff for all they have done to bring out these volumes and to mitigate my drudgery for more than a quarter of a century during which these volumes passed through the Press. ### [v7.c44.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.28) My thanks are due to Mr. M. S. Sharma, M.A., L.T., who assisted me substantially in preparing the Index of the modern archictectural terms as translated in the body of the work together with their Sanskrit equivalents. ### [v7.c44.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.29) I am also thankful to Mr. M. G. Nayar, Senior Reader of the Government Press, for arranging the plates and the final revision of the last proof. ### [v7.c44.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.30) P. K. ACHARYA. ### [v7.c44.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c44.31) ALLAHABAD UNIVERSITY : \*April, 1944-46.\* ### Preface to the First Edition ### [v7.c45.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.1) \*Origin and scope of the work\*—This Dictionary (encyclopaedia) owes its name to the \*University of London\*.¹ A glossary of the architectural terms used in the \*Mānasāra\*, the standard work on Hindu architecture, was prepared for my private use when I found it indispensable, after struggling for two and a half years to edit for the first time and translate into English a text, which is written in five different scripts,² possesses eleven badly preserved manuscripts, has undergone five recensions, and comprises more than 10,000 lines of a language rightly remarked by Dr. Bühler as the ‘most barbarous Sanskrit.’³ In this connexion there arose an occasion for me to express to the University the opinion that an encyclopaedia of Hindu architecture was badly needed. Architectural expressions appear throughout the whole field of general Sanskrit literature and epigraphical records, as well as in the extensive special branch of literature known as \*Vāstu-śāstras\*, more familiarly called \*Śilpa-śāstras\*. Existing dictionaries, in Sanskrit, English or any other language, do not elucidate architectural expressions; and the texts of the \*Vāstu-śāstras\* have been waiting for hundreds of years to be unearthed from manuscripts which are quite inaccessible without the guidance of a special dictionary that would also be instrumental in bringing to light many new things hitherto left unexplained in inscriptions and general literature. The University selected me as the person most immediately concerned and entrusted me with the task, suggesting that I should ‘make a full “dictionary” of all architectural terms used in the \*Mānasāra\*, with explanations in English, and illustrative quotations from cognate literature where available for the purpose.’ ### [v7.c45.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.2) ¹ It has developed out of a Thesis, which was accepted by the University for the D. Lit. degree. \*See\* the Foreword for the change of title to ‘Encyclopaedia.’ ### [v7.c45.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.3) ² Grantha, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Nagari. ### [v7.c45.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.4) ³ \*Ep. Ind.\*, Vol. I, p. 377; compare also Sir R. G. Bhandarkar, \*Ind. Ant.\*, Vol. XII, pp. 140, 141. ### [v7.c45.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.5) Thus the terms included in this encyclopaedia are primarily those found in the \*Mānasāra\*. But all the new architectural terms of any importance discovered in all the known architectural treatises, epigraphical documents, and general literature have also been added. I should estimate the new terms at about one-fourth of the total, numbering approximately three thousand.¹ No record has, however, been kept of the extent of the architectural manuscripts or the general literature searched, but some 50,000 pages of archaeological documents have been gone through almost line by line. ### [v7.c45.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.6) ¹ \*See\* the Foreword for a reference to the further additional terms discovered since 1928 and incorporated in this volume. ### [v7.c45.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.7) \*Extent of architectural terms comprehended\*—In the \*Vāstu-śāstras\* architecture is taken in its broadest sense and implies what is built or constructed in lasting materials and with a design and an ornamental finis. Thus, in the first place, it denotes all sorts of buildings, religious, residential and military, and their auxiliary members and component mouldings. Secondly, it implies town-planning; laying out gardens; constructing market places; making roads, bridges, gates; digging wells, tanks, trenches, drains, sewers, moats; building enclosure walls, embankments, dams, railings, \*ghāts\*, flights of steps for hills, ladders, etc. Thirdly, it denotes articles of house furniture, such as bedsteads, couches, tables, chairs, thrones, fans, wardrobes, clocks, baskets, conveyances, cages, nests, mills, etc. ### [v7.c45.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.8) Architecture also implies sculpture, and deals with the making of phalli, idols of deities, statues of sages, images of animals and birds. It includes the making of garments and ornaments, etc. ### [v7.c45.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.9) Architecture is also concerned with such preliminary matters as the selection of site, testing of soil, planning, designing, finding out cardinal points by means of a gnomon, dialling; and astronomical and astrological calculations. ### [v7.c45.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.10) These and similar matters are expressed by technical names which are to be understood as architectural terms for the purpose of this dictionary (encyclopaedia). ### [v7.c45.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.11) \*Principal sources and arrangement of materials\*—The sources drawn upon in this compilation may be classified under two divisions, namely, literary and archaeological. The former includes all the known \*Vāstu-śāstras\*, mostly in manuscript, which are avowedly architectural treatises, such as the \*Mānasāra\*, etc.; architectural portions of the \*Āgamas\*, and the \*Purāṇas\*, cognate portions of the Vedic and classical literature, such as the \*Brāhmaṇas\*, the \*Sūtras\*, the Epics, \*Kāvyas\*, dramas, etc. The archaeological records comprise all the inscriptions and other cognate matters published in the following series : \*Epigraphia Indica\* (first 13 volumes) ; \*Indian Antiquary\* (first 44 volumes) ; \*Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum\* (2 volumes) ; \*Epigraphia Carnatica\* (12 volumes, in 15 parts) ; \*South Indian Inscriptions\* of Dr. E. Hultzsch, late Rai Bahadur V. Venkayya, and Rao Sahib H. Krishna Śāstri (3 volumes, in 8 parts) ; General Sir A. Cunningham's \*Archaeological Survey Reports\* (23 volumes) ; \*Archaeological Survey\*, New Imperial Series (Vols. IV, XI, XII, XVIII, XXI, XXIII, XXIV, XXXIII, XXXIV) ; and Mysore \*Archaeological Survey Reports\* (Vols. I, II, III), \[Serindia, by Sir Aurel Stein ; Report on Archaeological Tour with Bunar Field Force (1900), by Stein ; Ancient Khotan (Vols. I, II), by Stein, Ville de Khotan, by Remusat ; L'Art de Gandhara, by M. Foucher ; Notes Chinoise, by M. S. Levi ; Fa-hien's Travels, by Legge ; Asiatic Researches (Vols. I—XIV) ; Marco Polo (Vols. I, II), by Yule ; Ancient Colonies in the Far East, by R. C. Mazumdar ; History of Siam, by Wood ; History of Burma, by Phare ; Inventaire Descriptif des Monuments Chams de L'Annam (Vols. I, II), by M. H. Parmentier ; Cambodge (Vols. I, II, III), by E. Aymonier ; Le Cambodge, by M. L. Delaparte ; Java and Her Neighbours, by A. S. Walcott ; De Sutrantraasche Period der Javansche Geschiedenis (1922), by Krom ; Bijdragen tot-de Taal-Land en Volken-Kunde van Nederlandsche Indie (1918); Buddhist Records, translated by Bill ; History of Art in Persia, by Perrot and Chipiez ; Etudes Iraniennes, by Darmesteter ; Scritores rerum Alexandri Magni, by C. Müller ; Architectural Remains : Anuradhapur (Ceylon), by Smitter; etc.¹\]. ### [v7.c45.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.12) ¹ See further details under Bibliography. ### [v7.c45.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.13) Illustrative quotations from these sources are, to speak very \*generally\*, arranged in the order in which they are mentioned above. Illustrations from other sources of smaller extent have been given where they seemed most suitable. ### [v7.c45.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.14) \*Appendices\*—A sketch of the important Sanskrit treatises on architecture is given in Appendix I. In Appendix II is given an alphabetical list of the historical architects mentioned in the archaeological records, together with short notes on their works and dates, where available. This list does not include those names which are casually mentioned without a reference to their works in the general literature, \*Purāṇas\*, \*Āgamas\*, and in the \*Śilpa-śāstras\*. ### [v7.c45.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.15) \*Ideal and general method\*—Dr. F. W. Thomas was the first to suggest the idea of compiling such an encyclopaedia long before I felt the necessity of the glossary mentioned above. In carrying out Dr. Thomas's kind advice it seemed to me that the most natural method was the one suggested by Dr. Burgess (\*Ind. Ant.\*, Vol. XIV, pp. 319-20), for collecting materials for the ancient Geography of India by indexing separately all the geographical words occurring in the archaeological and literary documents. Dr. Fleet illustrated this principle by making a topographical list of such words found in the \*Bṛihat-saṁhitā\* (\*Ind. Ant.\*, Vol. XXII, p. 169). This was followed by a similar list of words from the \*Bhāgavata-Purāṇa\*, by Revd. J. E. Abbott (\*Ind. Ant.\*, Vol. XXVIII, p. 1, f.). There such list-making stopped. It would have been much easier for me if I could have made use of any such list of architectural terms from any of the documents consulted.¹ ### [v7.c45.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.16) ¹ Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy published a short list after the publication of my \*Dictionary\* referring to a few new terms from the Buddhist literature and the writer's \*Indian Architecture\* (1927). ### [v7.c45.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.17) Professor L. D. Barnett, M.A., LITT.D., suggested that I should take Dr. S. Sörensen's Index to the \*names\* in the \*Mahābhārata\* as my model. I have followed his method, as well as that of Professors Macdonell and Keith in the Vedic Index, so far as these indices are concerned in bringing together everything useful in the form of a short article. ### [v7.c45.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.18) Despite its bulk, Sörensen's Index mostly confines itself to the proper names contained in the \*Mahābhārata\*, and does not include any illustrative quotations. But I had to go much beyond a single work and consult an extensive field of literature, like the veteran workers of the Vedic Index of \*names\* and \*subjects\*, which, though it contains subjects in addition to proper names, has not, for obvious reasons, cited the original passages in text or translation in addition to giving references to them. In this respect I took the largest Sanskrit work, the \*St. Petersburg Dictionary\*, as my ideal. But there, too, I had to differ from its immortal authors, Messrs. Böhtlingk and Roth, the fathers of the most useful Sanskrit researches, in two important points. First, the \*St. Petersburg Dictionary\* does not, for obvious reasons, give in all cases the full context of the passages quoted therein. For instance, from the illustrations like ‘prāsādārūḍha’ and ‘prāsādāṅgana’ (\*see St. Pet. Dict.\*, under PRĀSĀDA), it is difficult to see whether ‘prāsāda’ implies a temple, or a palace, or an ordinary residential building, or the assembly room and confessional hall of the Buddhist priesthood. In spite of some tremendous difficulties, I found it unavoidably necessary to cite long passages, in text or translation, or sometimes both, to illustrate the particular bearing of a term. ‘Pīṭha,’ for example, implies a seat, an altar, a platform, the pedestal of a column, the basement of a building, the plinth, the \*yoni\* part of the \*liṅga\*, etc.; these different shades of meanings cannot be made clear by such quotations as ‘pīṭhopari’ or ‘pīṭham ashṭāṅgulam.’ The second point, by far the more significant, will further explain the need of long contexts. The \*St. Petersburg Dictionary\* refers only to well-known treatises which, though covering an extensive field, are yet easily accessible, and does not deal with manuscripts locked up and preserved as relics; nor has it anything to do with the epigraphical documents. My literary quotations are in most cases from a large number of works and manuscripts some of which are written in unfamiliar scripts and most of which are neither well known nor easily accessible; and the illustrations from all the published inscriptions and other archaeological records, comprising approximately 50,000 pages, also necessitated the full context, partly for reasons stated above, and partly with a view to avoiding the possibility of distracting the attention of the reader and interfering with his grasping the argument rapidly. ### [v7.c45.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.19) \*Alphabetical order and transliteration\*—I could not avail myself of the express advice of Dr. Fleet in his highly appreciative Review of Dr. Sörenson’s masterly Index (\*Ind. Ant.\*, Vol. XXXIV, p. 92) to arrange the words according to the European alphabetical order, which, in the opinion of the reviewer, has enhanced the value of the work. The European alphabet, being more imperfect than the Sanskrit alphabet with regard to the number of characters, especially the vowels and the phonetical arrangement of them, seemed unsuitable for the terms which are included in this dictionary (encyclopedia.) In either of the alphabets, the transliterated Sanskrit words in some cases would be more or less confusing (e.g. Ṛishi, Ṛiksha, Rintika, Ripu). But for the difficulties of making typewritten copies¹ before the dictionary went to press, I should have preferred to have Sanskrit words written in Sanskrit characters. Following the order of the Sanskrit alphabet, words like ‘vaṁśa,’ and ‘śaṅku’ are given not before ‘vakra’ and ‘śaka’ (as in the \*St. Pet. Dict.\*, \*M. W. Dictionary\* and the Vedic Index), but after ‘vahana’ and ‘śashpa.’ The \*anusvāra\* is derived from at least four nasal characters of the Sanskrit alphabet (ṅ, ñ, ṇ, m). Logically the \*anusvāra\* should follow the order of the original letters : ‘śaṁku’ should be where ‘śaṅku’ would be placed ; but this is an extremely confusing arrangement (\*see Apte’s Dictionary\*). There is no reason why ‘śaṁku’ should be read before ‘śaka,’ there is also no reason for its being placed after ‘śashpa,’ although one should be quite justified in doing so when he is following the order of a particular alphabet, and does not hesitate to read in another alphabet \*e\* after \*d\*, \*i\* after \*h\*, \*o\* after \*n\*, and \*u\* after \*t\*, or \*l\* after \*k\*, \*h\* after \*g\*, and so forth. ### [v7.c45.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.20) ¹ Four copies of the Thesis referred to above had to be submitted to the University of London. ### [v7.c45.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.21) In transliteration I have followed the system of the Archaeological Survey of India. But I have not made any distinction between \*e\* and \*é\*, \*o\* and \*ó\*, simply because there is no such distinction in the Sanskrit language. These deviations from the trodden paths, which seem to be untenable, will not, it may be hoped, cause any inconvenience to readers. ### [v7.c45.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.22) \*Acknowledgment\*—Except in important cases which deserve special notice, the names of the scholars who have edited a particular inscription or written an article have not been added after the quotations. This need not offend anybody. I am sincerely grateful to the scholars to whom I owe the quotations. It seems, however, of little interest to know the name or names of the authors or editors of a particular passage, quoted occasionally a dozen times with full references to the article where it occurs. ‘Vedi,’ ### [v7.c45.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.23) for example, implying a throne, has a parallel instance in a passage quoted from an inscription. The passage is borrowed from the editors and my indebtedness is shown by the usual quotation marks, and I have stated that this passage occurs in ‘Inscription from Nepal, no. 15, inscription of Jayadeva, verse 25, \*Ind. Ant.\*, Vol. IX, pp. 179, 182.’ It, however, in no way enlightens the reader to know the names of the editors, Pandit Bhagwanlal Indraji and Dr. G. Bühler, c.i.e. ### [v7.c45.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.24) Again, a portion of a verse of the \*Sāṅkhāyana Śrauta-sūtra\* is quoted in the \*St. Petersburg Dictionary\*, but the full context is given in our encyclopaedia, and it is stated thus: \*Sāṅkhāyana Śrauta-sūtra\*, XVI, 18, 13 (\*St. Pet. Dict.\*). Beyond this, it seems unnecessary to add the names of Messrs. Böhtlingk and Roth. Lastly, in cases of quotations from general literature, the extent of which cannot be indicated even by an approximate number of books, it was impossible in some instances to mention the author's name. Compare, for example, a \*Glossary of Grecian Architecture\*, an anonymous work; and \*Śilpa-śāstra-sāra-saṁgrahaḥ Śivanārāyaṇātmajena prāchīna-granthebhyaḥ sāraṁ uddhṛitya prakāśitaḥ\*—\*Śilpa-śāstra-sāra-saṁgraha\*, compiled by collecting essential portions of the ancient treatises by a son of Śivanārāyaṇa’; again, \*Viśvakarma-jñāna\*, corrected (śaṁśodhita) by Kṛishṇa-śaṅkara-śāstrī; the author, if there were a real one beyond the mythical Viśvakarman (Creator of the Universe), is not stated anywhere in the treatise itself. ### [v7.c45.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.25) \*Need of showing the results achieved\*—Although it would be presumptuous for anybody to say that the subject of a dictionary like this has been exhausted in a pioneer work, I might be permitted, in justice to myself, to add that all the known and knowable materials which were likely to be of any use for this encyclopaedia, have been closely consulted and utilized. Whether the results will justify the great labour involved will have to be left to the actual experiment of those who are in need of such a work.¹ But the tremendous difficulties of a compilation like this will perhaps be not fully brought home to all readers, because 'no one but those who have taken part in similar labours, can at all realize the amount of tedious toil, I might almost say drudgery, involved in doing everything singlehanded, collecting the quotations and verifying references and meanings, making indices and lists of words, sorting and sifting an ever-increasing store of materials, revising old work, arranging and re-arranging new, correcting and re-correcting, writing and re-writing, and interlineating "copy," till reams upon reams of paper have been filled, putting the eyesight, patience, and temper to a severe trial.' ### [v7.c45.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.26) ¹ See the ‘Extracts from Opinions and Reviews,’ at the end of this volume, also of the \*Architecture of Mānasāra\*, Volume IV (1934), by the writer, and ‘What Others Think’ in the writer's \*Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad\*, Appendix III, pp. 422-49. ### [v7.c45.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.27) \*Aids and encouragement received\*—My sincere obligations are due, to the Secretary of State for India in Council for all facilities and help which I had the privilege of receiving as a Government of India State scholar and which were needed by a pioneer in this most exacting branch of oriental researches, specially during the Great European War of 1914–18. I take this opportunity to offer my respectful thanks in particular to late Sir Austen Chamberlain, late Sir T. W. Arnold, C.I.E., and late Mr. N. C. Sen, O.B.E. Words fail me to express adequately my gratitude to Professor Dr. F. W. Thomas, C.I.E., the then Librarian of India Office, London. As stated above, I owe to him the inception of the idea and courage to undertake this task. He placed at my disposal all the materials in the India Office and procured for me most of the available manuscripts from different libraries in India and Europe. He facilitated my work in Holland. He arranged, through the appreciation and kindness of Sir John H. Marshall, C.I.E., D.LITT., the then Director General of Archaeology in India, the creation of a prize post for me directly under the Governor in Madras for the publication of this work; this arrangement, unfortunately, fell through owing to absence on leave of Sir John Marshall and retirement of Lord Pentland at the time when I went to take up this appointment. It was again through Dr. Thomas's introduction that Sir Claude de la Fosse, C.I.E., M.A., D.LITT., the first Vice-Chancellor of the reconstructed Allahabad University, became personally interested in this work and readily induced the great educationist Governor, Sir Harcourt Butler, to recommend to the Government of the United Provinces to advance the cost of its publication. ### [v7.c45.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.28) I take this opportunity to express my respectful gratitude to Sir Harcourt Butler and his Government. And to Sir Claude I am further indebted for his scholarly sympathy, friendly advice, and constant encouragement. To those great lovers of oriental scholarship, Rai Rajeshwar Bali Sahib, o.b.e., the then Minister of Education; Kunwar Jagdish Prasad, c.i.e., o.b.e., i.c.s., the Education (then Chief) Secretary; and late Mr. A. H. Mackenzie, m.a., b.sc., the Director of Public Instruction, I am in a debt of gratitude for further encouragement, which has kept up the energy and spirit needed in bringing out this dictionary, after working on it for the past twelve years. ### [v7.c45.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.29) For suggesting many improvements I am indebted to the veteran orientalists, Dr. L. D. Barnett, of British Museum, London, and late Professor E. J. Rapson, of Cambridge University, who examined the whole manuscript before it went to press. I am thankful to Professor J. Ph. Vogel, ph.d., of Leiden University, for helping me with all necessary books during my stay there. To Mr. E. L. G. den Dooren de Jong and Miss Ch. L. Du Ry van Beest Holle of Zootomical Laboratory, Leiden, I owe many friendly services in connexion with this work, but for which it would have been impossible for me to get on in Holland. To another talented lady friend, late Miss E. J. Beck, who took the trouble of putting in the diacritical marks to a duplicate typewritten copy of this dictionary, I owe, like many other Indian students, more obligations than I can adequately express. ### [v7.c45.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.30) Last but not least I am pleased to record my grateful thanks to Major W. C. Abel, m.b.e., v.d., lately the Superintendent of Government Press, Allahabad, and to his able successor, Mr. D. W. Crighton, and to their staff for their ever sympathetic and kind treatment towards me and their zealous and careful handling which was necessary in printing an encyclopaedia like this. ### [v7.c45.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.31) P. K. ACHARYA. ### [v7.c45.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c45.32) Sanskrit Department, University of Allahabad : \*August, 1927.\* ### The Order of the Roman Characters and the Method of Transliteration Adopted ### [v7.c46.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c46.1) a, ā ; i, ī ; u, ū ; ṛi, ṛī ; e, ai ; o, au ; k, kh ; g, gh ; ṅ ; ch, chh ; j, jh ; ñ ; ṭ, ṭh ; ḍ, ḍh ; ṇ ; t, th ; d, dh ; n ; p, ph ; b, bh ; m ; y, r, l, v ; ś, sh, s ; h ; ṁ ; ḥ. ### [v7.c46.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c46.2) | | PAGES | | FOREWORD .. .. .. .. .. | ix–xviii | | PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION (DICTIONARY) .. .. | xix–xxvii | | THE ORDER OF ROMAN CHARACTERS AND THE METHOD OF TRANSLITERATION ADOPTED .. .. .. | xxix | | LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .. .. .. .. | xxxi–xxxiv | | TEXT OF THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA .. .. .. | 1–613 | | APPENDIX I—A SKETCH OF SANSKRIT TREATISES ON ARCHITECTURE .. .. .. .. .. | 615–59 | | APPENDIX II—A LIST OF HISTORICAL ARCHITECTS WITH SHORT NOTES ON THEIR WORKS .. .. .. | 661–77 | | BIBLIOGRAPHY .. .. .. .. .. | 679–84 | | EXTRACTS FROM OPINIONS ON THE DICTIONARY .. .. | 1A–18A | | INDEX TO MODERN ARCHITECTURAL TERMS WITH THEIR CORRESPONDING SANSKRIT EQUIVALENTS .. .. | 1 to 18 | ### [v7.c46.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c46.3) This page appears to be entirely blank. ### [v7.c46.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c46.4) | \*Serial no.\* | | | | | \*Facing page\* | | 1. | Svastika Mansion (front view) .. | .. | .. | .. | \*Frontispiece\* | | 2. | Aṅghri (Half plans looking up and looking down) | | .. | .. | 12 | | 3. | Aṅghrika-vāri | .. | .. | .. | .. | 12 | | 4. | Aṇḍa .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 12 | | 5. | Atibhaṅga .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 12 | | 6. | Adhishṭhāna .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 16 | | 7. | Anu-śālā .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 38 | | 8. | Antara .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 38 | | 9. | Anila-bhadraka | .. | .. | .. | .. | 39 | | 10. | Abja .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 38 | | 11. | Amṛita-nandana | .. | .. | .. | .. | 39 | | 12. | Alaksha .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 38 | | 13. | Ardha-prāṇa | .. | .. | .. | .. | 46 | | 14. | Ardha-maṇḍapa | .. | .. | .. | .. | 46 | | 15. | Aṁśuka | .. | .. | .. | .. | 46 | | 16. | Āyaka-skambha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 46 | | 17. | Ardha-hāra .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 46 | | 18. | Alindaka .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 49 | | 19. | Alpa-nāsika .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 48 | | 20. | Ābhaṅga .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 48 | | 21. | Āliṅga .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 48 | | 22. | Āndola .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 52 | | 23. | Āsana .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 64 | | 24. | Āsana .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 64 | | 25. | Indra-kīla .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 66 | | 26. | Indra-kośa .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 67 | | 27. | Ishṭaka .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 66 | | 28. | Upa-pāda .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 66 | | 29. | Upāna .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 67 | | 30. | Ugapīṭha .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 | | 31. | Uttara .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 70 | | 32. | Uttāna-paṭṭa | .. | .. | .. | .. | 70 | | 33. | Upa-vedi .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 70 | | 34. | Upa-tulā .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 71 | | 35. | Upa-pīṭha .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 76 | | 36. | Ushṇīsha .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 90 | | 37. | Kaṭaka .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 100 | | 38. | Kapota .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 100 | | 39. | Kapota-pālikā | .. | .. | .. | .. | 100 | | 40. | Karoṭī .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 100 | | 41. | Karṇa-patra .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 100 | | 42. | Kalaśa .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 100 | | 43. | Kīrtti-vaktra .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 100 | | 44. | Kampa .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 102 | ### [v7.c46.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c46.5) | \*Serial no.\* | | | | | | | 45. | Kampa-bandha | .. | .. | .. | 102 | | 46. | Kaḍaṅga .. | .. | .. | .. | 104 | | 47. | Kabandhana .. | .. | .. | .. | 104 | | 48. | Karṇika .. | .. | .. | .. | 104 | | 49. | Karṇa .. | .. | .. | .. | 104 | | 50. | Karṇikā .. | .. | .. | .. | 112 | | 51. | Kalpadruma | .. | .. | .. | 118 | | 52. | Kavāṭa .. | .. | .. | .. | 118 | | 53. | Kuñjarāksha .. | .. | .. | .. | 118 | | 54. | Kumārī-pura | .. | .. | .. | 124 | | 55. | Kuntala .. | .. | .. | .. | 128 | | 56. | Kumbha-pañjara | .. | .. | .. | 128 | | 57. | Kūṭa .. | .. | .. | .. | 128 | | 58. | Kokila .. | .. | .. | .. | 130 | | 59. | Kubjaka .. | .. | .. | .. | 130 | | 60. | Keyūra .. | .. | .. | .. | 131 | | 61. | Kokilārgala | .. | .. | .. | 130 | | 62. | Koṇa-loshṭa .. | .. | .. | .. | 132 | | 63. | Kumbha-stambha | .. | .. | .. | 132 | | 64. | Koshṭha-stambha | .. | .. | .. | 136 | | 65. | Kuḍya-stambha | .. | .. | .. | 136 | | 66. | Kumuda .. | .. | .. | .. | 136 | | 67. | Kshudra-nāsā | .. | .. | .. | 136 | | 68. | Kshepaṇa .. | .. | .. | .. | 138 | | 69. | Kharvaṭa .. | .. | .. | .. | 138 | | 70. | Kheṭa .. | .. | .. | .. | 146 | | 71. | Garbha | .. | .. | .. | 148 | | 72. | Gaṇḍa-bheruṇḍa | .. | .. | .. | 148 | | 73. | Gabhārā .. | .. | .. | .. | 149 | | 74. | Garuḍa-stambha | .. | .. | .. | 148 | | 75. | Gavāksha | .. | .. | .. | 148 | | 76. | Guru-dvāra | .. | .. | .. | 156 | | 77. | Gojī .. | .. | .. | .. | 156 | | 78. | Gopāna .. | .. | .. | .. | 156 | | 79. | Grāha-kuṇḍala | .. | .. | .. | 156 | | 80. | Ghaṭikā-sthāna | .. | .. | .. | 158 | | 81. | Gopura .. | .. | .. | .. | 174 | | 82. | Chauvādi .. | .. | .. | .. | 174 | | 83. | Chandra-śālā | .. | .. | .. | 174 | | 84. | Chaitya .. | .. | .. | .. | 174 | | 85. | Chitra-toraṇa | .. | .. | .. | 184 | | 86. | Jagatī .. | .. | .. | .. | 184 | | 87. | Jaya-stambha | .. | .. | .. | 184 | | 88. | Jala-garbha .. | .. | .. | .. | 184 | | 89. | Jala-dvāra | .. | .. | .. | 196 | | 90. | Tāla-māna .. | .. | .. | .. | 218 | | 91. | Toraṇa .. | .. | .. | .. | | ### [v7.c46.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c46.6) | \*Serial no.\* | | | | | | \*Facing page\* | | 92. | Taraṅga | .. | .. | .. | .. | 222 | | 93. | Tāṭika | .. | .. | .. | .. | 222 | | 94. | Trikarṇa | .. | .. | .. | .. | 222 | | 95. | Tripaṭṭa | .. | .. | .. | .. | 222 | | 96. | Tribhaṅga | .. | .. | .. | .. | 222 | | 97. | Danta-kīla | .. | .. | .. | .. | 226 | | 98. | Danta-nāla | .. | .. | .. | .. | 226 | | 99. | Dīpa-daṇḍa | .. | .. | .. | .. | 226 | | 100. | Dīpa-stambha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 226 | | 101. | Dhārā-kumbha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 226 | | 102. | Dhvaja-stambha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 226 | | 103. | Nāṭya-griha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 274 | | 104. | Nāṭya-griha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 274 | | 105. | Nāla-geha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 278 | | 106. | Nāga-kala | .. | .. | .. | .. | 280 | | 107. | Nāṭaka | .. | .. | .. | .. | 280 | | 108. | Nāsika | .. | .. | .. | .. | 280 | | 109. | Nidhāna | .. | .. | .. | .. | 280 | | 110. | Nidrā | .. | .. | .. | .. | 280 | | 111. | Pañjara | .. | .. | .. | .. | 288 | | 112. | Pañjara-śālā | .. | .. | .. | .. | 288 | | 113. | Patra | .. | .. | .. | .. | 288 | | 114. | Patra-toraṇa | .. | .. | .. | .. | 288 | | 115. | Padmāsana | .. | .. | .. | .. | 298 | | 116. | Padma | .. | .. | .. | .. | 302 | | 117. | Padma-pīṭha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 302 | | 118. | Parigha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 302 | | 119. | Parṇa-mañjūshā | .. | .. | .. | .. | 302 | | 120. | Pādajāla | .. | .. | .. | .. | 302 | | 121. | Pālikā | .. | .. | .. | .. | 302 | | 122. | Pīṭha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 309 | | 123. | Potra | .. | .. | .. | .. | 308 | | 124. | Prachchhādana | .. | .. | .. | .. | 308 | | 125. | Pratoli | .. | .. | .. | .. | 309 | | 126. | Phaṇa | .. | .. | .. | .. | 308 | | 127. | Phalakā | .. | .. | .. | .. | 308 | | 128. | Pralamba | .. | .. | .. | .. | 326 | | 129. | Prastara | .. | .. | .. | .. | 330 | | 130. | Balikā | .. | .. | .. | .. | 366 | | 131. | Bali-pīṭha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 366 | | 132. | Bahala | .. | .. | .. | .. | 366 | | 133. | Bahula | .. | .. | .. | .. | 366 | | 134. | Brahma-mastaka | .. | .. | .. | .. | 388 | | 135. | Bhadra | .. | .. | .. | .. | 388 | | 136. | Bhrama | .. | .. | .. | .. | 388 | | 137. | Bhrama-daṇḍa | .. | .. | .. | .. | 388 | | 138. | Mañjūshā | .. | .. | .. | .. | 390 | ### [v7.c46.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c46.7) | \*Serial no.\* | | | | | | \*Facing page\* | | 139. | Maṇika | .. | .. | .. | .. | 394 | | 140. | Maṇi-dvāra | .. | .. | .. | .. | 394 | | 141. | Maṇḍapa | .. | .. | .. | .. | 396 | | 142. | Maṇḍapa | .. | .. | .. | .. | 406 | | 143. | Masīti | .. | .. | .. | .. | 414 | | 144. | Masūraka | .. | .. | .. | .. | 414 | | 145. | Mukula | .. | .. | .. | .. | 414 | | 146. | Yūpa-stambha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 414 | | 147. | Rāja-harmya | .. | .. | .. | .. | 438 | | 148. | Lakshmi-stambha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 442 | | 149. | Lūpā | .. | .. | .. | .. | 442 | | 150. | Vedi | .. | .. | .. | .. | 442 | | 151. | Śaṅku | .. | .. | .. | .. | 476 | | 152. | Śālā (Daṇḍaka) | .. | .. | .. | .. | 484 | | 153. | Śikhara | .. | .. | .. | .. | 526 | | 154. | Śrīvatsa | .. | .. | .. | .. | 526 | | 155. | Setu | .. | .. | .. | .. | 526 | | 156. | Stūpi | .. | .. | .. | .. | 526 | | 157. | Stambha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 534 | | 158. | Svastika | .. | .. | .. | .. | 604 | | 159. | Hasti-nakha | .. | .. | .. | .. | 612 | | 160. | Hasti-hasta | .. | .. | .. | .. | 612 | ### An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture ### [v7.c47.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c47.1) AKSHA—The base of a column, the eye, a die. (1) The base of a column : ### [v7.c47.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c47.2) Athavākshaṁ (=adhishṭhānaṁ) navāṁśochchaṁ janma chaikena kārayet। (\*Mānasāra\*, xiv, 17, note.) ### [v7.c47.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c47.3) (2) The eye : ### [v7.c47.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c47.4) Asyāyāmaṁ tri-mātraṁ syād vistāraṁ chaika-mātrakam। Akshāyāmārdha-mātraṁ syād vistāraṁ yuktito nyaset। (\*M.\*, lx, 29-30) ### [v7.c47.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c47.5) (3) A die : ### [v7.c47.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7.c47.6) Akshaiḥ sphaṭika-saṁyuktaṁ tulā-bhājanaṁ eva cha। (\*M.\*, lxviii, 28.) _First 92 of 8,698 passages. [Read on](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7)_ ## Linked texts (36) - [Mānasāra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.art.silpa.dravida.manasara.14.17) — Sanskrit - [Suprabhedāgama](https://indike.org/pramana/in.sampradaya.saiva.agama.siva.suprabheda.30.1) — Sanskrit - [Raghuvaṃśa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.kavya.mahakavya.rama.raghuvamsa.1.52) — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit - [Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.ramayana.valmiki.2.3.19) — Vālmīki, Sanskrit - [Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana.brahmanda.1.7.97) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Aṣṭādhyāyī](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.vyakarana.astadhyayi.5.4.76) — Pāṇini, Sanskrit - [Bṛhatsaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.astro.samhita.rsi.brhatsamhita.58.4) — Varāhamihira, Sanskrit - [Mānava Dharmaśāstra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.manu.8.271) — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit - [Chāndogyopaniṣad](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.upanisad.mukhya.chandogya.5.18.1) — Sanskrit - [Aitareyabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.aitreya.8.5) — Mahidāsa Aitareya, Sanskrit - [Mahābhārata](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.mahabharata.vyasa.3.15.16) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Śatapathabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.satapatha.10.2.1.3) — Yājñavalkya & Śāṇḍilya (Vedic teacher), Sanskrit - [Bhāgavatapurāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana.bhagavata) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Kāmikāgama](https://indike.org/pramana/in.sampradaya.saiva.agama.siva.kamika) — Sanskrit - [Rājataraṅgiṇī](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.historical.kashmir.rajatarangini) — Kalhaṇa, Sanskrit - [Matsyapurāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana.matsya) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.artha.kautilya) — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit - [Śāṅkhāyanaśrautasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.kalpa.srauta.sankhayana) — Śāṅkhāyana, Sanskrit - [Mayamata](https://indike.org/pramana/in.art.silpa.dravida.mayamata) — Maya, Sanskrit - [Devīmāhātmya](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana.markandeya.devimahatmya) — Sanskrit - [Yājñavalkyasmṛti](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.yajnavalkya) — Yājñavalkya, Sanskrit - [Epigraphia Indica](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.corpora.ei) - [Śulbasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.kalpa.sulba) - [Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.corpora.cii) - [Indian Antiquary](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.corpora.ia) - [Epigraphia Carnatica](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.corpora.ec) - [Nīlakaṇṭhadhāraṇī](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.sanskrit.dharani.avalokitesvara.nilakanthadharani-t1111) — Sanskrit - [South Indian Inscriptions](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.south.sii) - [Viśvakarmaśilpa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.art.silpa.visvakarman.visvakarmasilpa) — Viśvakarman, Sanskrit - [Vāstuśāstra (Giridhara)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.art.silpa.grhavastu.vastusastra) — Giridhara, Sanskrit - [Rājavallabhamaṇḍana](https://indike.org/pramana/in.art.silpa.marugurjara.rajavallabhamandana) — Maṇḍana Sūtradhāra, Sanskrit - [Kalyani Inscriptions of Dhammacheti](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.seasia.hanthawaddy.kalyani-inscriptions-of-dhammacheti) — Pāli - [Siddhāntaśiromaṇi](https://indike.org/pramana/in.astro.siddhanta.early.siddhantasiromani) — Bhāskara II, Sanskrit - [Paiṭhaṇ plates of Rāmachandra.—Śaka 1193 (ed. Fleet 1885)](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.south.varia.paithan-plates-of-ramacandra-saka-1193*fleet1885) — Sanskrit - [Hampe inscription of Krishnaraya, dated Saka 1430 (ed. Hultzsch 1892)](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.deccan.vijayanagara.hampi-stone-tablet-of-krishnaraya-saka-1431-no-xiv*hultzsch1892) — Sanskrit - [Añjanēri Jain temple inscription of Seuṇachandra III, Śaka 1063](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.deccan.yadava.anjaneri-jain-temple-inscription-of-seunachandra-iii-saka) — Sanskrit --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.art.acharya-1927.v7) · Pramāṇa