Studies in Indian Art c14.s1: 40. Early Medieval Period

Studies in Indian Art c14.s1

Language: English

c14.s1.t1 Late Medieval Period (10th-12th Century) — 7 parts

40. Early Medieval Period

On the break-up of the Gupta empire in the ninth century the current of its fine culture also received a setback. We enter upon the seventh century as the period of transition between the Gupta and the early medieval age. In this transitional period the older convention of art began to be replaced by newer conceptions which were characterised by a conscious force and an urge for vigorous expression. With the rise of the Rajput states in the different parts of the country in the eighth century many institutional developments of great value for the future evolution of society were witnessed. In the sphere of art the refined and restrained conventions of the Gupta period were replaced by colossal creation and cosmic conception. Art now fulfilled its purpose, firstly by gigantic execution of such monuments as the Kailāsa temple of Ellora; secondly by the comprehensive narration of cosmic themes taken from the life-stories of gods and demons, and thirdly by interpreting the spiritual message of the age through a significant symbolism. We find that in the domain of philosophy, Saṅkarācārya proclaimed the unity of the individual soul and the universal soul, Ātman and Brahman. The old ideas about man and his powers circumscribed within the mortal coil of three and a half cubits were no longer sufficient to satisfy the inherent, human craving for greatness and expansion. All departments of human thought seem to have been affected. No longer satisfied with the tame, flat-roofed shrines of the Gupta period, new fashions in architecture concerned themselves with the developments of the śikharas and the maṇḍapas, and bold architects worked to convert entire mountain blocks into monolithic temples resembling Kailāsa and Meru. Both royalty and the people were moved by the same spirit. The Kailāsanātha temple of Ellora was the outcome of the grand conception of the Rāṣṭrakūṭa emperors in the eight century. The ideal divine abode of Śiva on mount Kailāsa where he lives in eternal conjugal happiness with his consort Pārvatī and hosts of devas, was recreated on earth, as if it were, in the form of the Kailāsanātha shrine for the visual delectation of the pious and devout worshippers.

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In the social and religious sphere the same spirit was manifested in the growth of such institutions as the Saptasāgara-Mahādāna (Gift of the Seven Oceans'), Brahmāṇḍa-dāna ('Gift of the Universe'), Dharitri-dāna (Gift of the Earth'), etc., an index of the increased tempo of man's aspirations. In the realm of poetry the figures of speech (alaṃkāras) became subordinate to an uncommon fondness for Atiśayokti or hyperbolic description. Of course, this led to inevitable degeneration of the poetic art, as of all arts but there was no escape from a process which ultimately petered out in conventionalised descriptions and trivial details of the poetry of the later medieval period. The high sounding titles like Paramabhaṭṭāraka Mahārājādhirāja, Parameśvara of many a potentate ruling the country from one end to the other and also the descriptions of the universe-enveloping dust stirred by their marching hordes give us some idea of the unbridled passion for big size and glory that was the rampant vogue of that age. The national soul bestriding the vast expanse of land and ocean from Madhyadeśa to Svarṇadvīpa and Śrīvijaya in Sumātrā on one side, and to the teeming Central Asian cities on the other, witnessed an unprecedented cultural empire unknown before or after in the history of Greater India.

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The medieval period of our history falls into two divisions: Early Medieval (8th-9th cent.) and Late Medieval (10th-12th century). Four great imperial powers strived for supremacy in the first period, viz. the Gurjara-Pratihāras in the north (Kanauj), the Rāṣṭrakūṭas in the Deccan (Mānyakheṭa), the Pallavas in the far south (Kāñchī), and the Pālas in the east (Bihar-Bengal). The architectural monuments of the Gurjara-Pratihāras in north India have rolled into dust, leaving the whole Madhyadeśa a blank for old Brahmanical temples. The Rāṣṭrakūṭas were more fortunate, having left the magnificent Kailāsa temple of Ellora, as an immortal monument to their glory. The Kailāsa temple of Dhārāpurī (Elephanta), although a little later, is in the same tradition, combining rich sculpture with bold architecture. The Kailāsanātha temple of Kāñchīpurī in the south is a Pallava monument eloquent with the same spirit, but rather conventionalised. The sculptures and images of the Pāla school belong to the early medieval art, and at times show genuine grace and feeling.

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The Paurāṇic stories of the lives of gods and goddesses play an important part in the sculptural representations of this period. The triumphant exploits of Śiva and Viṣṇu symbolise the spirit of the times and give power to its art. The image of Śiva Naṭarāja performing his cosmic dance was conceived and created in this period and makes eloquent at one point the artistic urge of the times. Śiva vanquished the demon Gajāsura, controlled its riotous energy and discovered a new rhythm of life in the form of his Tāṇḍava dance. The images of Śiva-Tāṇḍava in the Lākhāmaṇḍal temple of Princess Īśvarā (eighth century) on the banks of the Yamunā in the remote interior of Dehradun district show the wide extension of this motif.

Late Medieval Period (10th-12th Century)

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Both sculpture and architecture entered on a new lease of creative activity and elaborate workmanship in this period. The great centres of art were Khajuraho in the north, Mount Abu and Pālitāna in the west, Tanjore in the south and Bhuvanéśvara and Koṇārka in the east. Under the patronage of the powerful Chandella kings and the Parmāra rulers of Malwa a large number of temples with rich sculpture were executed. The Khaṇḍāriyā Mahādeva and other temples of Khajuraho are noted monuments of this period. King Udayāditya and Bhoja of Malwa also caused several big temples to be built of which the Nīlakaṇṭha or Udayeśvara temple built by Udayāditya (1059-1080 A.D.) at Udaipur in Gwalior State represents the best style of this period and is in fine preservation. The Jaina temples of Dilwara at Mount Abu are in marble, and the very elaborate carving of their pillars and reliefs shows how the sculptors handled hard stone like soft wax. In the Sun temple at Koṇārka and in the temples of Bhuvanesvara the elaborate wealth of beautiful sculpture and decoration has reached extreme limits, testifying to a passionate love for exuberant detail as the universal feature of art in this period.

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Details of Sculpture. Kandariya Mahadeva Temple Khajuraho.

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Several features may be noted about the subjects represented in this period. The iconography of the principal Pauranic gods and goddesses that had been evolved in the early medieval age entered into a new phase of elaboration, leading to an inconceivably complex pantheon, almost each deity revelling in a multiplicity of hands, attributes and variety of forms. An infinite number of goddesses, Mātṛkās, Yoginis, Yakṣiṇīs, Śāsana-devatās, etc. took the place of what used to be a vital religious art with significant religion. The iconographic forms were supported by a number of Dhyānas, Dhāraṇīs and Sādhanamālās. We also witness a conglomeration of numerous cults and faiths—Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Jaina and Bauddha, which multiplied and freely met and mingled with one another. Vajrayāna, Sahajayāna, the cult of the Siddhas, and the Nātha Yogis, of the Tāntrikas and the Śāktas, and many other imbecile forms of worship were serving as props for the religious beliefs of the people. There were many corrupt philosophies based on free sexual relationship, almost elevated to a religion. We witness its influence in several medieval temples portraying a series of ‘posture figures’, representing the eighty-four Karaṇas or Ratabandhas. This erotic basis of art and philosophy found its culmination in the later images representing the gods and their female counterparts in Yab-Yum (‘Father-Mother’) poses.

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In the domain of philosophy the rational power of man became ineffective to conquer new regions of thought or master new systems. As a palliative, the human mind keeps brewing and boring at its own centre, entering into futile details of ratiocination like the beetle which bores through the wood at the point under its feet. As a result we find that the system of logic pursued in this period is reduced to a bundle of absurd niceties and new off-shoots of thought are nipped in the bud by the double-edged sword of hair-splitting avachchhedaka and avachchhinna. There was enough vanity, but little scope for original creation.

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In the field of art also hardly any scope for individual initiative was left; all images became like dead imitations of each other. The artist instead of looking for new creative themes works according to stereotyped dhyānas of images, and indulges in cutting deeper and deeper into the outline of scroll-work until the chisel drills through to the other side of the stone, leaving behind a vacuum of jālī work from which its narrative contents had as if it were been squeezed out.

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In the realm of architecture there is the same partiality for details. The varieties of Prāsāda, Jagatī-Pīṭha (basement) and Śikharas with their innumerable spires (aṇḍas or or *śṛṅgas*) are perplexing, and it is doubtful if the classification was not more theoretical than real.

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The religious synthesis between Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva was expressed graphically in the form of the Trikūṭa shrines or triplecomposite temples both in the Chandella art of the north and the Hoysala art of the south. The plan of the temple combined three shrines in three directions leaving the fourth as the entrance; the three sanctums opened into a common *maṇḍapa*, and over the roof of each was built a *śikhara*. The art of this period still breathing of some force and a certain degree of freshness maybe compared to the last glow of a flickering lamp.