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Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c12.s4: Bodhgaya

Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c12.s4

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Bodhgaya

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Bodhgaya is the site where Buddha obtained his enlightenment. It is six miles to the south of Gaya and at a very short distance from the Village of Urale, ancient Uruvilva which was the hermitage of Ṛiṣi Kāśyapa and also the seat of Sujātā. It is said that Upagupta pointed out to Aśoka that Buddha obtained his enlightenment at this place and the latter built here a Bodhi Temple. The tree was known as the *Bodhi Druma* or the Tree of Wisdom. The Throne or Seat of Buddha was called *Bodhi Maṇḍa*; the temple created over the throne *Mahā Bodhi Vihāra*, and the great monastery close by was called *Mahā Bodhi Saṅghārāma*. The original Bodhi shrine erected by Aśoka no longer exists at Bodhgaya but the true representation of the same occurs at Bharhut in a bas-relief which shows that it was an open pavilion supported on pillars in the middle of which was the *Vajrāsana* throne decorated in front with four flat pilasters. Behind the throne appears the trunk of the Bodhi Tree, which rises up high above the building, and on each side of the tree there is a combined symbol of the *triratna* and the *dharmachakra*, standing on the top of a short pillar. On each side of the *Vajrāsana*-room there is a side-room of the same style. The top of the throne is ornamented with flowers, but there is no figure of the Buddha. It was conceived in the style of the *puṣpagrahani vedikā* or the platform for receiving flower-offering as depicted near the Stūpas at Mathura and other places. During repairs the original *Bodhi Maṇḍa* was actually discovered after removing the two subsequent restorations and it was found to have been made of polished sandstone with four short pilasters in front, exactly as depicted in the Bharhut bas-relief. The sandstone and its polish were similar to those of other Aśokan monuments.

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Round it Aśoka had built an enclosure with a curcuit of about 258 ft. measuring outside. It was originally of brick which still exists in the foundation but later on replaced by a palisade (*vedikā*) consisting of uprights (*thabha*), cross-bars (*sūci*) and copings (*uṇhīsa*), which is very similar to the railings at Bharhut and at Sanchi but chronologically stands midway between them, circa end of the 2nd century B. C. The inscriptions engraved on it show it was the gift of Kuraṅgī, queen of king Indrāgnimitra, and Nāgadevā, queen of Brahmamitra. There were 64 pillars, each with a section of 14″/12″, height of 6′8″, coping 1′2″, plinth 2′2″, thus with a total height of 10′.

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The general scheme of decoration consists of friezes and rosettes of the lotus flower on the copings and the uprights respectively marking it as the lotus palisade (*Padmavaravedikā*). A number of other subjects in amplification of the Uttarakuru motif together with Jātaka scenes and historical scenes of Buddha's life are depicted, as for example, Mithuna figures either shown together with *Kalpavriksha* tree producing ornaments hanging on the bevelled corners of the pillars, or shown separately on the front and back sides of the posts; *mithuna* seated on couch; a palace with *toraṇa* and *vedikā* showing a male with two women behind the railing; Gaja-Lakṣmī representing the ancient cult of Śrī-Devī; worship of the Bodhi Tree with a throne and *chhatra*, by a *mithuna* figure which was naturally a very important representation at Bodhgaya; Dharmachakra worship either placed on the Bodhi Maṇḍa or on pillar (Fig. 87); *triratna* on Bodhi Maṇḍa; Stūpa and its worship; Yaksha Śaṅkukarṇa (showing the *guhyaka* or *kiṅkarshikas* with upraised ears); a dryad or treenymph climbing on a tree with the help of a Yaksha seated below (Fig. 88); Mother and child with a goat (on a pedestal); the bold figure of a woman standing on a *pūrṇakumbha* reminds of a kindred figure found at Mathura but standing amongst lotuses and the Bodhgaya specimen also seems to be that of Śrī-Lakṣmī in a new idiom (Fig. 89). Amongst Buddha's life-scenes we find the Gandharva Pañchaśikha holding a harp standing outside the Indraśaila cave (Fig. 90); a *mithuna* standing outside a cave in *añjali-mudrā* (Fig. 91); a *ṛishi* seated in front of a *guhā* with the Vajrāsana inside (Fig. 92); the two latter obviously showing the mingling of the Uttarakuru and Buddhist traditions in a new context; a *mithuna* playing on a diceboard having sixty-four squares, divided into eight rows of eight squares each; gift of Jetavana (Fig. 93); a group of elephants offering worship to the Bodhi Tree, a scene treated much more elaborately at Bharhut and Sanchi; amongst Jātakas the sculptors of Bodhgaya have only a restricted number, e. g. Chhaddanta Jātaka, Padakusalamānava Jātaka showing the horseheaded (*Aassamukhī*) Yakshī and the young Brāhmaṇa (Fig. 27c), Vessantara Jātaka, Kinnara Jātaka and several others not identified.

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A strong point at Bodhgaya is the representation of animal figures, e.g. winged lion; winged horse; winged elephant; fish-tailed human being (*nara-machhcha*); bull, ram, goat, makara and several other *Ihāmṛiga* or fabulous animals (Fig. 94). On one of the pillars is shown a figure riding on a fish-tailed elephant (*jalebha* or *gaja-machchha*) and another on the same pillar riding on a lion-headed fish-tailed aligator (*magara-machchha*), other mythical land and water animals rendered in beautiful friezes are shown on the copings and provide a handsome introduction to the subjects in the art of Sanchi and Mathura. It is clear that the carvers at Bodhgaya elaborated their legecy from Bharhut and passed it on to their successors at Sanchi and Mathura in a more elaborate form. They show their originality in evolving new subjects, specially the winged figures and in developing a style which is more direct, simple and unified, avoiding as far as possible complex or synoptic treatment as found at Sanchi. They also had formulated their own ideas of perspective and isometric rendering as seen on a pillar where a rather complex design with two sides of a bigger railing enclosing a smaller railing round a tree and another pillar with a railing on one side shows a contingent of complex buildings.

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The temple at Bodhgaya underwent several restorations, the most important one being in the Gupta period when it was known as *Brihadgandhakuṭī prāsāda* on the site of *Vajrāsana*. This was even further subjected to a very thorough renovation by the Burmese in 1035-1079 A. D., when much of the stucco work was done and also the cross-legged Buddha seated in an earth-touching attitude.

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*Chaṅkramaṇa-Chaitya* (Pali, *Chaṅkama*): This was the name given to the pathway near the *Vajrāsana* Throne where Buddha used to take his walk and it is stated that after his Sambodhi he walked here for seven days immersed in profound meditative thought about the new knowledge he had obtained. The terraced walk that still exists is 53' long. It was a wall 3' high and 3' 6" broad, flanked on the two sides by eleven pillar-bases in stone which appear to have been added later and indicate that the promenade was once covered. The pillar bases are much similar to such stone bases (*Kumbha*) found at Mathura (Vogel's *Catalogue*, pl. II c-d).

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On one of them stood the magnificent female figure with her feet placed on a *Pūrṇaghaṭa* most probably Lakshmī. From the earliest times the Buddhist regarded the Ratna Chaṅkrama Chaitya as a monument of a special sanctity associated with the life of Buddha.

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Fig. 94 a

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Fig. 94 b

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Fig. 94 c

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Fig. 89 a

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Fig. 94 d

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Fig. 95

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Fig. 96

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Fig. 97

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Fig. 101

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Fig. 98

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Fig. 102

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Fig. 100

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Fig. 99

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CHAPTER IX

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Rock-Cut Architecture

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9 (a). UDAIGIRI AND KHAṆḌAGIRI CAVES

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The movement of art creativity of the Śuṅga period has a major centre in Orissa in the East where about five miles northwest of Bhuvanesvar a group of caves was excavated in the Khaṇḍagiri-Udaigiri hills separated by a ravine. These hills of sandstone formation are honeycombed with caves or cells inhabited by monks in ancient times. They are in different stages of architectural evolution, those in Khaṇḍagiri being small like dens and in Udaigiri respectable excavations. Ordinary caves are characterised by a chamber shaded by a pillared verandah in front; in some cases the anti-chamber is divided into two or three cells (Garbha, Dvigarbha, Trigarbha). More elaborate caves are two-storeyed (Dvibhūmika), the upper storey in some cases receding back from the lower one, with an open terrace in front. A peculiar feature of the caves is a bench of stone or podium (āsana peṇḍikā, āsana piṇḍikā) running round the three sides of the front verandah about 1-1½ ft in hight. The two sides of the verandah are hollowed out at the top to make small cupboard like cells (Bhāṇḍāgārikā) for storage of sundry articles. The doors are very small (Rāṇīgumphā, 3'11" X 2') requiring the monks to crawl into the cells which are separated from each other by a thin stone wall 3" thick.

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The number of caves is 35 in all, 19 being in the Udaigiri hill and 16 in the Khaṇḍagiri. Those at Udaigiri are the Rāṇīgumphā, Svargapurī or Alakāpurī, Jaya-vijayagumphā, Vaikuṇṭhapura, Pātālapurī, Mañchapurī, Gaṇeśagumphā, Hāthīgumphā, Sarpagumphā, Vyāghragumphā, Jagannāthagumphā, Ṭhakurānī, Vajradhārā, Rasui and Haridāsgumphā. The Khaṇḍagiri caves are Navamunigumphā, Satabharagumphā, Ākāśagaṅgā, Devasabhā, Anantagumphā. The caves are definitely part of a Jaina monastic establishment patronised by King Khāravela of Kaliṅga whose inscription is engraved on the underside of the projecting ledge of the Hāthīgumphā cave which seems to have been a natural cave. He was a mighty emperor and dynamic personaltiy who ruled in about 160 B. C. which should be the time of the rock-excavation. He himself rebuilt the capital by providing the various contingents of the city including its ramparts and gateway (Gopura prākāra) and reconstructed the lake embankments restoring also the palace named Vidyādharādhivāsa, repaired a water canal (praṇālī) dug in the past by the Nandas and brought it to the city and himself built a new palace named Mahāvijaya Prāsāda. He defeated Behasatimitta (Brihaspatimitra) King of Magadha and brought back an image of Jina which Nandarāja had removed from Kaliṅga. It was he who in his 13th year excavated on the Kumārī Parvata (the ancient name of Udaigiri and Khaṇḍagiri hills) cells for the living of monks (jīvadeha sajikā parikhātā) at the site of this establishment known as Arhat Nisīdiyā.

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The rock excavations were distinguished by raised terraces (samutthāpita hitā) of beautiful form (varākāra) and several architectural designs (aneka yojana). These were supported on pillars (thambha) and having ante-chambers shining like crystals (vaidūrya garbha).

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Finally he organised a great festive celebration in honour of these religious establishments. Such was the glory of Kshemarāja Vṛiddharāja Bhikshurāja and Dharmarāja Khāravela, an emperor of mighty conquests (mahāvijayarāja).

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A short inscription of the chief queen (agramahishī) of Khāravela in the Mañchapurī cave calls it a leṇa (cell) for the use of the Jaina monks (samaṇanām).

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RĀṆĪGUMPHĀ: It is the largest and most important of all the excavations, being elaborately carved: it is noted for commodious wings, large number of cells and spacious quadrangle in front. It consists of two storeys, each with a central wing and two abutting wings on the three sides of the courtyard (49' x 24'). The length of the upper main verandah is 62' and that of the lower 44'. The upper storey is not placed directly over the lower but recedes leaving an open terrace in front of the verandah which is approached by stairways and from where the spectators could look down on the ground floor.

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There are no chaitya halls or shrines for worship in the Orissan caves as they are found in western India. In addition to this unique feature the architectural planning of the three enclosing gallaries round the courtyard with one side used as frontal approach, together with the broad and spacious verandah points to some special purpose which was in the minds of those responsible for these excavations. From the beginning the Jaina monks were interested in the life of the community. It appears that these large double-storeyed caves served the purpose of popular entertainment by the performance of dramatic shows. This is chiefly indicated by the scenes carved on the back wall of the verandah, illustrating some famous dramatic legends from Indian literature and folklore. There are the well known scenes of the Udayana-Vāsavadattā story which has been identified beyond any doubt and also probably the story of Duḥshyanta and Śakuntalā. The frieze occupying upper part of the verandah of the upper storey in the Rāṇīgumphā cave contains seven bas-reliefs within the interspaces of the eight doorways. Of the scenes in the frieze of the Gaṇeshgumphā only two are of major importance.¹

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¹ Scenes one to seven in the Rāṇigumphā cave have been amply illustrated by Dr. Rajendralal Mitra in his ‘Antiquities of Orissa’ Vol. II (1880), plates VI to XI and the two scenes of the Gaṇeshgumphā on plate XV and XVI of the same book. They were described in detail in the *Cave Temples Of India* (Fergusson and Burgess, 1880), pp. 81-84 Rāṇigumphā and pp. 86-88 Gaṇeshgumphā.

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Briefly they may be described as follows:

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(A) Rāṇigumphā. Scene I: (Mitra, plate VI) a celestial figure carrying a basket of lotus garlands.

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Scene 7 (Mitra, Plate VI). The counterpart of scene 1 on the proper left hand side of the frieze.

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Scene 2 represents three elephants who seem to be attacking a panicky crowd. In the fore-front are shown a female and a male figure defending themselves with a heavy club. Behind them are a number of female figures either seeking shelter in various attitudes of consternation, or by their gesture offering to assist in repelling the attack. Fergusson incorrectly thought that it probably represented some episode in the story of the conquest of Ceylon by Vijaya where elephants, *Yakshas* and *Yakshiṇīs* performed important parts. (*Cave Temples*, p. 81). [Fig. 95].

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Scene 3 is one of the best preserved and most interesting of the series. It consists of eight figures, four female and four male in four groups. The first represents a man apparently asleep inside a doorway, and a women sitting by him watching. In front of these is a woman leading a man by the hand apparently to introduce him to the first pair. Beyond this on the right a man and a woman are engaged in mortal combat holding swords and shields in their hands. Beyond these on the extreme right a man carries off in his arms a woman who still bears her shield in her hand though she has dropped the sword and is pointing with the finger of her right hand towards the fighting first pair. (Mitra, plate VIII, p. 8; *Cave Temples*, p. 82). This scene is repeated on the frieze of the Gaṇeshgumphā and is often described as the rape scene.

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Scene 4: In the first part of the bas-relief are three attendants a horse and its groom restraining him. The foremost attendant holds a fly-whisk in his right hand and a *chhatra* in his left which shows that the principal figure who has alighted from the horse is a king. In the second part of the carving the royal figure is shown holding a bow in his left hand and arrows in the right and about to shoot at a herd of deer running in front of him. In between them is a blossoming tree. In the third part of the story we see the royal personage having withdrawn his bow from action which is now hung on the left arm. He is standing in front of a tree on which is seated a young female figure. At the foot of the tree is a deer. Fergusson identified this as a scene from the Sāma Jātaka which is very doubtful. (Mitra, plate IX, p. 8; Cave Temples, p. 83).

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Scene 5 carved in the central compartment, shows a group of female figures apparently approaching to worship a saint seated cross-legged (Mitra, plate X, pp. 8-9; Cave Temples, p. 83).

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Scene 6: The scene consists of there amorous couples seated on couches and enjoying drinks. It is similar to those depicted at Sanchi. (Mitra, plate XI, p. 9; Cave Temples, p. 83-84).

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(B) GAṆESHGUMPHĀ—The frieze in the upper storey of the Gaṇeshgumphā consisted of three complete and two half reliefs. Two only are carved with figures. The end ones and the centre compartment are filled with the traditional ‘Buddhist rails.’

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Scene 1: Of the remaining two scenes one contains a repetition of the abduction scene of the Rāṇigumphā cave. ‘There are the same eight persons, and all similarly employed in both. Only that in this one the sculpture is very superior to that in the other and the attitude of the figures more easy and graceful.’ (Cave Temples, p. 87; Mitra, plate XV, p. 10).

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Scene 2: The bas-relief contains sixteen persons. In the first part of the story we see a party of soldiers on foot, dressed in kilts and moving in the act of pursuing. In front of them are three persons on an elephant. The hindmost is a male figure showering coins from a purse. The middle one is also a male figure more prominent than the first one and shooting with bow and arrows in the direction of the pursuing soldiers. The third person is a woman driving the elephant with a goad held in her right hand. A tree separates this scene from the next one. In the second part of the scene the elephant is kneeling down on the ground and the riders are alighting. In the third part of the scene we see the same three persons standing and moving. The last one has a big bundle or a container on his shoulder. [Fig. 96].

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In the fourth scene the female figure is seated on a rich cushion in a disconsolate mood and her companion is trying to console her. (Mitra, plate XVI, p. 10; Cave Temples, p. 88). These two scenes were also illustrated by wood-cut blocks on plate 44, Vol. VII (1838) of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal by Major Kittoe as part of his Journal on a tour in Orissa; pp. 679-685).

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The important point about these different scenes forming part of the two friezes is the fact that they illustrate independent scenes. As remarked by Dr. R.L, Mitra "Each frame is complete by itself and except in outline and general character bears no relation to its neighbour." (*Antiquities of Orissa*, Vol. II, p. 4). Fergusson remarked "At one time I was inclined to believe that the scenes represented in the sculptures here and in Rānīkā nūr (i. e. Rānīgumphā) were continuous and formed part of one connected history. A more careful study, however, of the matter with the increased knowledge we now possess, has convinced me that this is not the case, and that each division in the storeyed bas-relief must be treated as separate subject. In this instance (i e. Gaṇeshgumphā) it seems that the sculptor purposely left the central compartment blank in order to separate the two so completely that no one should make the mistake of fancying that there was any connection between them." (*Cave Temples*, p. 87),

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It is possible to identify with the same certainty the second scene in the Gaṇeshgumphā cave with an episode in the Vāsavadattā story. Scene 5 of Rānīgumphā frieze seems to represent the story of Śakuntalā.

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Vāsavadattā-Udayana story. The clue to this identification is furnished by three terracotta plaques recently discovered from the ancient site of Kauśāmbī, once the capital of king Vatsarāja Udayana. They are now deposited in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Banaras and all are obviously from the same original mould. They illustrate the tensest part of the Vāsavadattā-Udayana legend, the flight of the lovers from Ujjayinī on the back of a female elephant in the company of their court jester Vasantaka. The Kauśāmbī plaques have been published in detail in the Journal of the UP Historical Society.¹ In this new light the scene of the Gaṇeshgumphā cave becomes clear. Both in the stone relief and the terracotta plaques the pursuers at the back of the elephant are the soldiers of the king of Ujjayinī. They are divided from their main job by Vasantaka who from his seat on the back of the elephant is raining a shower of coins which the soldiers greedily begin to pick up. In the terracotta plaque Udayana is seated on the elephant and holds the lute Ghosha-vatī in his right hand. In the sculpture he is shown shooting at the soldiers. The pose of Vāsavadattā is identical in both the terracotta and the stone relief. She is driving her own elephant with a goad in her right hand. Whereas the terracotta plaque depicts only the flight scene, the stone relief supplements it by adding a couple of subsidiary related scenes enacted in Udayana's capital at Kauśāmbī. In the second part of the scene separated from the first by a tree which marks the end of the forest Udayana and Vāsavadattā are out of danger and seem to have reached their capital. They are alighting from their elephant who is kneeling on the ground.

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¹ Rai Krishnadasa, ‘Vāsavadattā-Udayana Terracotta Plaque from Kauśāmbī’, *JUPHS*, Pannalal Special Number, 1945, pp. 82-90.

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In the third part Vasantaka is shown with a bag on his shoulder, evidently the bag of coins, and Udayana is leading Vāsavadattā to his palace. The fourth scene shows the disconsolate lady Vāsavadattā inside the harem and the king is engaged in consoling her.

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The story of Udayana is at present available in Buddhist, Jaina and Brāhma-nical literature;¹ but it is essentially a love romance and there are no differences based on religion in the main outline of the story. The scene relating to the flight of Udayana and Vāsavadattā on the elephant from Ujjayinī forms a common part of all the versions. The terracotta plaques from Kosam and the stone reliefs in the Udaigiri cave—both assignable to the 2nd century B. C.—provide the archæological evidence of the main episode of the Udayana legend as it was current in north and east India. The main outlines are essentially the same in both, the only notable difference being the presence of the lute Ghoshavatī in the hands of Udayana in the terracotta scene and its absence in the stone relief. The lute plays a prominent part in the drama of Bhāsa and the version of the story on the terracotta with the lute in it may have been bsed on the same original as the drama of Bhāsa.

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¹ The Hindu version of the Vāsavadattā-Udayana episode occurs in the 2nd book of the Kathāsaritsāgara as a part of the whole legend of Udayana. The dramas of Bhāsa and ter on of Harsha are versions of the story. The Buddhist form of the story is found in the early Pali literature and all the versions have been discussed by Burlingama in his book: Buddhist Legends, pt. I, p. 62 (HOS 28). Although references to Udayana are found in a germinal form in the Jaina Āgama literature, specially the Āvaśyakasūtra, the complete love story of Udayana and Vāsavadattā is given only in the three later Jaina works, viz. Triṣaṣṭiśalākā-puruṣacharita of Hemachandra (12 century), Kumārapālapratibodha of Somaprabha (1185 AD), and the Mṛgavatīcharitra of Malādhārī Devaprabha (13th century). The commentary of Haribhadra on the Āvaśyakasūtra was one of the sources of Devaprabha.

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Scene of Mad Elephant—Scene 2 of the Rāṇīgumphā frieze (Mitra, plate VII) can easily be identified with one of the well known episodes in the Udayana legend, viz. the scene of the infuriated elephant Nalagiri of the king of Ujjayini getting out of control and attacking a panicky crowd in a public street and its ultimate pacification by the musical charm of Udayana. [Fig. 95]. In the story of Hemachandra the scene occurs as follows:

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"One day Nalagiri pulled up his post, knocked down two elephant-drivers and roaming as he liked terrified the townspeople. 'How is that elephant, which is controlled by no one, to be subdued?' The king asked Abhaya who suggested, 'Have king Udayana sing,'. Commanded by the king, 'Sing to Nalagiri', Udayana and Vāsavadattā sang to him. As a result of hearing his song, the elephant Nalagiri was thrown and made captive. Then the king gave Abhaya another boon which he kept in reserve also.”

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Rape scene—The so-called rape scene in the Rāṇigumphā and Gaṇeśgumphā caves cannot be identified with any certainty. The first half of the relief depicting two pairs of male and female figures have a seeming connection with the Vāsavadattā story, viz. Udavana thrown into prison as a captive by King Caṇḍa Pradyota and Vāsavadattā stealthily visiting him. In the second scene Vāsavadattā or a female attendant is leading Vasantaka into the presence of Udayana. But the third and the fourth scenes, viz. the scene of the mortal combat between a man and a woman and the forceful carrying away of the latter by the former do not agree with this explanation. [Fig. 97].

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Royal hunting scene. Duṣyanta-Śakuntalā scene. The whole makeup of this very interesting scene (No. 4 in Rāṇigumphā cave; Mitra, plate IX) unmistakably points to the story of King Duṣyanta visiting the hermitage of sage Kaṇva and falling in love at first sight with Śakuntalā. The different stages in the relief are definite and clear. In the beginning the king arrives with his soldiers; his own presence indicated by a horse with an empty back followed by an attendant holding fly-whisk and an umbrella, the two signs of royalty. In the next scene the king is hunting and shoots his arrows at a herd of frightened deer. In the third scene the leader of the herd is ushered the king into the presence of a beautiful woman. The king has withdrawn his bow and is in the act of looking at her or conversing with her. The female figure rests on the lower branch of a tree and the deer crouches at the foot of the tree. [Fig. 98].

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This version of the story is nearer to the legend of Duṣyanta and Śakuntalā as given in Ādiparva of the Mahābhārata (chapters 63-64, Poona critical edition). It is stated there that Duṣyanta once equipped a hunting expedition and following his game from one forest to another reached the hermitage alone. He found it lonely except for a maiden who was the daughter of the sage and who entered into conversation with him. The king cunningly accosted her by saying he had come to pay his homage to sage Kaṇva. The girl thereupon said that her father had left for another part of the forest to gather fruits. Then the king questioned her as to her identity and as to how sage Kaṇva practising self-control could have her as his daughter. Śakuntalā in reply related the story of her birth from the union of Menakā with Viśvāmitra. As soon as she had finished, the king openly offered his love to her which she after some hesitation and assurance accepted. In this simple fabric there is no place for the female friends of Śakuntalā, viz. Priyaṃvadā and Anasūyā whom Kālidāsa introduces in his drama for the first and also none of the sophisticated overtures of love from either side.

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These romantic love stories formed part of the common literary and art heritage of ancient India and their introduction in the repertoire of carving in the Jaina cave in the extreme east of India is proof of their universal popularity.

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The verandahs are supported on pillars with simple brackets. On one side of the upper terrace there is a spacious throne with arms and a footrest probably intended for the chief abbot of the monastery.

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The interspaces between the springing arches are occupied by horizontal bands of rail design (*vedikā śobhāpaṭṭi*) similar to that in the western Indian caves. The rails consist of uprights and three crossbars which are quite plain without any rosettes. [Fig. 99]. But the sculptors of Rāṇigumphā, Gaṇeshagumphā and of others were certainly fond of the lotus design with which they have beautifully ornamented the bands of arches and the bas-reliefs. [Fig. 100]. This shows that they were in possession of the same decorative repertoire as the master-stone carvers of Central India. Above the rails are carved human figures in various postures in low relief depicting scenes to be described below. The semi-circular arch bands contain the bas-reliefs of scrolls and various ornamental devices, issuing from the mouths of a lion, elephant or deer. Amongst religious symbols are found Bodhi Tree within railing and scenes of Stūpa-worship similar to those at Sanchi, Bharhut and Bodhgaya. On a tympanum is found the *triratna* as well as the *svastika* symbol. In the right hand corner of the upper storey is carved a male figure (4'6" high) depicting a Scythian soldier wearing the northern dress, viz. a tightfitting coat, girdle from which is slung a short sword sheathed in scabbard, buskined boots covering the feet and legs upto the middle of the calf. [Fig. 101]. The presence of drinking scenes and of jack fruits as containers of wines similar to those at Bharhut are reminiscent of the *Kalpavriksha* motifs and traditions relating to Uttarakuru which were also described by Jaina tradition. [Fig. 102].

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Another noticeable scene is the capture of elephants by monkeys, leading them in a triumphal procession [Fig. 103], and the turning of a monkey into an ascetic. [Fig. 104]. Among other animals are seen a well-caprisoned horse, winged deer and a bull with a female rider. [Fig. 105].

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As mentioned earlier the special architectural feature of these caves is the row of arches or the arcading technique so designed as to support the bases of the arch on pilaster capitals of addorsed animals. The shape of the arch instead of being a horse-shoe is invariably semi-circular in the Orissan caves. The pillars of the verandahs have square shafts with vase capitals and simple brackets as in the Rāṇigumphā and more elaborate addorsed animal capitals as elsewhere. The festooning female figures (*toraṇa-śālabhañjikā*) between the pillar and bracket in the Anantagumphā is more primitive than the Sanchi figures in a similar position. In the Manchapuri caves this place is taken by a horse with rider in oblique posture which became the prototype of the later *toraṇa-vyāla* figures as seen in the Gupta art of Sarnath.

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GAṆEŚGUMPHĀ: It is the next important cave in the Udaigiri group, consisting of only one storey having an ante-chamber of two cells (*dvigarbha layaṇa*), a pillared verandah (30′ long by 60′ deep) which is approached by a staircase (*sopāna*) flanked by two guardian elephants, a motif appearing here for the first time. The verandah (*mukhamanḍapa*) was supported on five pillars and two pilasters. The pillars are of extreme simplicity being square on the top and below and octagonal (*aṭṭhāmsika*) in the middle by the bevelling of edges. The capitals on the pillars have a simple bracket on each side with a female figure in circular form similar to that in the Manchapuri cave. The end pilasters were carved with bold figures of guardians holding long spear (*kuṇṭadhārī rakṣāpuruṣa*).

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The ante-chamber behind the verandah consists of two cells (together 30′ × 10′) entered by four doorways. [Fig. 106]. These are adorned with arches similar to those (*Kīrtimukha*) in the Chaitya halls. The compartments between the doors of cells are sculptured with scenes in bas-reliefs representing the Vāsavadattā-Udayana story.

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A special architectural feature of the Jayavijaya cave is that its upper storey is placed over the lower one and not receding as in Rāṇīgumphā. It has two cells (*dvigarbha leṇa*) and has a front verandah with two guardian figures, a male and a female, a feature found in the Western Indian caves also. The space between the arches is occupied by the rail design and a *Bodhi* tree worshipped by female figures. The bands show floral designs as in Rāṇīgumphā and dwarish Yakshas at the ends. The Svargapurī cave is similar to Jayavijaya in its upper storey being over the lower one which is in the form of a spacious *Manḍapa* for congregation. There are two exquisite bas-reliefs of elephants in the two sides of the arch of the doorway.

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The Vyāghragumphā is an original conception in its architectural formation. It is a great jutting boulder, carved into the shape of a tiger's open mouth with the upper jaw with nose and eyes forming the roof and the throat as a doorway leading to a single cell about 6′4″ deep by 7′ to 9′ wide. The doorjambs slope inwards slightly and the pilasters on each side have winged elephants on the capitals and vase shaped bases with an arch surmounting them. It is quite impressive as a specimen of bold sculpture in its tiger face like the Dhauli elephant similarly carved out of a rock. The fancy of the Orissan artists was given to such capricious ideas of art-creations. There is a small inscription stating that it was the abode of an anchorite named Ṣabhūti who spent his days in contemplation as if in the jaws of death. [Fig. 107].

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The Sarpagumphā or Serpent Cave is a single cell with a verandah having in the tympanum of the doorway the figure of a three-hooded serpent which shows that Jainas as a religion were interested in the folk cult of the Nāgas similar to that as in the Yakshas, sacred trees and Śrī-Lakshmī.

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The Anantagumphā is the most important cave on the Khaṇḍagiri hill. It consist of an ante-chamber (24' × 7') with a carved verandah (26' × 7') in front supported on seven pillars and commanding an open terrace. [Fig. 108]. The roof of the ante-chamber is curved by a foot. Originally there were four doorways surmounted by circular arches ending in horizontal bands at the springing. The sculptured bas-reliefs in this cave are of great significance forming as it were an unusual assemblage of ancient decorative and religious motifs which put these sculptures on a par with the motifs in the Stūpas of Central India and in the rock excavations in the Western India. For example, we see here a series of battlement motifs flanking a lotus flower of conical shape, alternating with rail pattern, *triratna* design over the crest of the arch, Nāgas with interlacing tails on the tympanum of the arches, flying Vidyādharas holding baskets of flowers in their left hand and showering handfuls of flowers with the right hand, pillars surmounted by inverted lotus capital with fluted leaves similar to the Basnagar column, another segmented pillar topped by a *Pūrṇaghaṭa*, sacred tree in sequel railing worshipped by a male figure in adoration on right and a female figure holding a large garland on left with a couple of dwarf attendants holding spouted water-jar and a row of twelve flying geese holding lotuses in their beaks. In the back wall of the ante chamber are carved *svastika* and *triratna* motifs. Another bas-relief shows the goddess Śrī-Lakshmī standing on a lotus and two elephants standing likewise on lotuses are pouring water on her; a religious motif found all over India from the time of the Ṛigveda as described in the *Śrī-Sūkta* and venerated amongst the Jainas, Buddhists and Brāhmaṇas alike. (Fig. 109). It was an ancient cult named *Śrī-Maha*. Its presence in the earliest Orissan art of the 2nd century B.C. is a pointer how Orissa shared in the cultural legacy of the country as a whole. Another significant representation is that of Sūrya, the Sun-god riding in his chariot drawn by four horses, with his two wives, much as at Bodhgaya

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The pilasters by the side of the doorways are rather of an exceptional class showing the originality and the vast aesthetic resources of the artists of Kaliṅga. The shafts spring from a well formed *Pūrṇaghaṭa* covered with leaf decoration. The *Pūrṇaghaṭa* is placed on a pedestal of overlapping slab. The middle protion of the shaft has its sharp edges chamfered (*aṭṭhāmsika thaba*) with the upper and lower portions square in section. The capital consists of addorsed animals. The surface is decorated with a *Śrī-vriksha* motif consisting of bulbous portions enclosing lotus circumambulation stūpa nave colonnade

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Fig. 107

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Fig. 103-104

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Fig. 105

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Fig. 110

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Fig. 112

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outer inner circumambulation garbhagṛiha pillars maṇḍapa flowers and beautified with two medallions above and below. The complete motif may be identified as an interwoven lotus garland (*Pushkarasraj* ¹) which is mentioned in Vedic literature and which seems to have symbolised the series of five lotus centres in the body.

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¹ Asvinau Pushkarasrajau, RV. 10. 184. 2.

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Fig. 108

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Fig. 109

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Fig. 106

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Fig. 111

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Fig. 116

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Fig. 115

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Fig. 113

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Fig. 114

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Fig. 117

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Fig. 118 a

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The above caves in Orissa form part of a countrywide art movement in the Śuṅga period ranging from Saurāṣṭra to Kaliṅga as its two principal peripheries and the movements of Bharhut and Sanchi as its heart. The Śuṅga period was an age of intense art creativity of which remains have been found at Nagarī near Chittore in the form of the Nārāyaṇa-vāṭaka with its stupendous stone railing; at Mathura the Mahāsthāna shrines of Bhagavān Vāsudeva erected in the time of Soḍāsha; at Besnagar in the form of the Heliodoros column; at Ajanta in the Chaitya Halls Nos. 9 and 10 with paintings; at Bhājā with sculptures; at Bharhut, Sanchi and Bodhgaya with Stūpas, gateways and railings and at Kumārīparvata in Orissa with rock-cut excavations as described above and also in distant Amaravati in Andhra where the earliest movement of Stūpa building began about the 2nd century B. C.

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The sculptures, paintings and the architectural forms of Śuṅga art show a complete mastery of the earliest religious traditions and folk cults and their integration to a new movement of exceptional richness and dynamism. In addition to the three art forms mentioned above there were numerous centres of terracotta manufacture in the Śuṅga age at Mathura, Ahichchhatra, Bairāṭ, Kauśāmbi, Vārāṇasī, Pāṭaliputra and Chandraketugaṛh (24 parganas, Bengal) of which a fuller study gives proof of wide art consciousness cultivated in the form of a broad-based æsthetic culture all over North India and the Deccan.

Cites (22)