Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c13.s7: Brāhmanical Images in Mathura Art

Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c13.s7

Language: English

Brāhmanical Images in Mathura Art

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Mathura had become the centre of the *Bhakti* cult several centuries before the Christian era. This cult centred round the worship of Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣhṇa who was regarded as a divine incarnation in human form. Kṛiṣhṇa was considered to be the incarnation of Viṣhṇu. There are several references to the worship of Viṣhṇu in the Ṛigveda. He is mentioned there as Gopa (protector of the cows), Sakhivān (one having companions), which epithets contain the germs of his later biography. In the Pāṇini's Aṣhṭādhyāyī there is reference to the worship of Vāsudeva and his associate Arjuna whose Bhakta or devotee followers were known as Vāsudevaka and Ārjunaka. This clear evidence is indicative of the high antiquity of the religious worship of Kṛiṣhṇa. In the Mahābhārata Śāntiparva there is a long discourse of about thousand ślokas known as the Nārāyaṇī Parva in which we find the worship of God Nārāyaṇa as the regular feature of religious belief and side by side reference is also made to the Sātvata doctrine amongst the Bhāgavatas, the followers of which were known as Ekāntin. Against these religious backgrounds can be explained the large number of sculptures of Brāhmanical gods and goddesses in the Mathura school of sculpture. Particular attention may be drawn to the archæological evidences available in the form of the following epigraphs :—

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(1) Ghosuṇḍī well inscription which refers to the gods Saṅkarṣhaṇa and Vāsudeva and their religious shrine called Nārāyaṇa Vāṭaka which was enclosed by a railing (*prākāra*) and had in its centre a stone slab (*pūjā-śilā*).

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(2) Bhilsa inscription engraved on an octagonal Garuḍa pillar erected in the year 12th of the Bhāgavata king in the shrine of Bhagavān Viṣhṇu (*Gotamī-putena bhāgavatena bhagavato prāsādottame garuḍadvaja kārito*).

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(3) Besnagar Garuḍadhvaja inscription of the Greek ambassador Heliodoros in which he calls himself a Bhāgavata.

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(4) Mathura lintel inscription of king Vasu mentioning the building of a Mahāsthāna (the great shrine) of Bhagavān Vāsudeva which had a Vedikā, Toraṇa and a Chatuḥśāla. This inscription is of exceptional importance, for it mentioned king Vasu who according to the Nārāyaṇī Parva was the supreme patron of the Nārāyaṇī and the Sātvata Dharma. He was as we learn from this inscription a contemporary of Mahākshatrapa Shoḍasha (c. first century B.C.)

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(5) Mora well-inscription engraved on a long stone-slab mentioning a stone-temple (Śaila devagṛiha) in which images (archā) of the Five Vṛishṇi Heroes were installed.

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From the above inscriptions the following points may be noted :—

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(1) The kings and rulers, who patronised the Vaiṣṇava cult, took pride in stylising themselves as Bhāgavatas.

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(2) The new cult attracted devotees from all classes of people including foreigners like Heliodoros. It shows that the doors of the Bhāgavata religion were open without distinction of class or rank to the widest range of people.

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(3) Viṣṇu was worshipped either alone as Vāsudeva or in the company of Saṅkarṣaṇa, i. e. Kṛiṣṇa and Balarāma as pair and at other times in a group of Five Vṛishṇi Heroes, representing the Vyūha or litany of the Bhāgavata religion.

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(4) The two deities Saṅkarṣaṇa and Vāsudeva are regarded as supreme under the epithet Sarveśvara (Paramount over all) admitting their pre-eminent position in the entire pantheon.

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(5) The religious shrines to the worship of Vāsudeva and his associates were built which were known as Mahāsthāna (of Mathura lintel inscription) or Prāsādottama (of Bhilsa-inscription) which clearly point to the paramount position of the shrines of the Bhāgavatas over the shrines of the other deities. It shows that the Bhāgavatas initiated a regular building activity of religious monuments styled as Prāsāda, Devagṛiha, etc. Patañjali also has referred to the shrine of Balarāma and Keśava (prāsāde dhanapati-rāmakeśavānām). In the case of the Ghoṣuṇḍī monument, called the Nārāyaṇa Vāṭaka, the earlist shrine of the Bhāgavatas took the form of an enclosure or an open quadrangle having a stupendous stone railing alround and a stone slab (pūjā-śilā) in the centre. This was known as the Nārāyaṇa Vāṭaka in the popular language of those times. It appears that later on, four gateways began to be added to the railing as mentioned in the Mathura lintel inscription—Chatuḥśalatoraṇa vedikā. [Fig. 165].

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(6) With the institution of regular shrines in the Bhāgavata cult it goes without saying that actual images representing divinities like Vāsudeva, Saṅkarṣaṇa etc. were set up in the form of stone images. We have actually discovered in the excavations at the Morā shrine stone torsos representing the Vṛiṣhṇi Heroes (Vṛiṣhṇināṁ pañchavīrāṇām archāḥ), whose names as we know from the Vāyu Purāṇa were Balarāma, Kṛiṣhṇa, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Sāmba. Their style closely follows that of the free-standing Yakṣhas in that they are carved in the round. They are dressed in a dhotī and uttarīya and some types of ornaments as found on the Yakṣha figures, their right-hand is held in abhayamudrā and the muscles of the breast and body generally are emphasised like those in the Yakṣha statues. The only noticeable distinction is in the size of these two groups of images. Whereas the Yakṣha statues are of a grandiose style of colossal size, the Vaiṣhṇava images are comparatively smaller, approximating nearly the life-size figures. It appears that this diminution of the size of images was a developing tendency and the same may be said with regard to the Bodhisattva images. These statues from Morā furnish undisputed proof of the priority of Vaiṣhṇava images over the images of the Buddha and the Bodhisattva. [Figs. 166-7].

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This early formulation of the Brāhmanical stone images representing the deities of the Bhāgavata pantheon was a fact of supreme value in the evolution of image worship in ancient India. Surely this movement brought about far-reaching changes in the religious ideas of the people of all denominations and naturally could not have left the followers of the Buddha without coming under its influence. During the couple of centuries, i. e. from the first century B. C. to the first century A. D. a Bhāgavata predilection for image-worship gave such universal acceptance and momentum as ultimately culminated in throwing open the doors to the making of the image of the Buddha as well.

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Images of Brahmanical gods and goddesses began to be made in considerable number in the beginning of the Kuṣhāṇa period at Mathurā. The pantheon was gradually elaborated and became rather complex in the Gupta period. The following is the full list of the gods and goddesses whose images have been found in the Mathurā school of sculpture.

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I. ŚUNGA PERIOD : Balarāma ; Vṛiṣhṇi Vīra Images. [Figs. 1667].

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II. KUSĀṆA PERIOD : (a) Brahmā, (b) Śiva—(i) in Liṅga form (ii) in human form, (iii) in ardhanārīśvara form and (iv) Śiva-Pārvatī standing together, (c) Kārttikeya, (d) Gaṇapati, (e) Viṣhṇu, (f) Sūrya, (g) Indra, (h) Kāmadeva, (i) Balarāma, (j) Sarasvatī, (k) Lakshmī (l) Durgā :—(i) Mahiṣhamardinī and (ii) Simhavāhinī, (m) Seven Divine Mothers (sapta mātṛikās), (n) Kubera—(i) alone and (ii) Kubera and Hārītī.

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III. GUPTA PERIOD : All the above gods and goddesses with the addition of the following are met with in the Mathura school of sculpture of the Gupta period :

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(I) Harihara, the combined and composite form of Vishnu and Śiva (II) Vishnu in Trivikrama incarnation, (III) Piṅgala, an attendant of Sūrya, (IV) Daṇḍa, an attendant of Sūrya, (V) Navagraha, (VI) Kṛishṇa in his various childhood legends, e. g. Sakaṭa-līlā, Keśī-Vadha, (VII) Gaṅgā and Jamunā, (VIII) various Āyudha-purushas (personified divine attributes), e. g. Śaṅkha, Chakra, Gadā and Padma represented as human beigns holding these attributes or symbols.

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Of these only Sūrya, Śiva, and Gaja-Lakshmī were represented in Śuṅga art elsewhere prior to the development of the Kushāṇa sculpture. Sūrya riding on quadriga and three-eyed Śiva holding a triśūla represented on railing pillars at Bodhagaya. The earliest Śiva Liṅga representation is found at Gudimallam in South India and another at Bhita near Allahabad, in North India. Gaja-Lakshmī is represented in the art of Bharhut, Sanchi, Bodhagaya and Udaigiri-Khandagiri in Orissa and earlier Western Indian caves.

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These may be described as follows :

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BRAHMĀ : Depicted for the first time in stone. Amongst Pañchāla coins those of Prajāpatimitra show the figure of Prajāpati or Brahmā on one side. It is a miniature human figure with one head and probably four arms. At Mathura, Brahmā is depicted with four faces (sometimes three faces only in a front view), holding his right hand in abhayamudrā. He is a four-armed pot-bellied figure, having a beard and also matted looks on the head. The beard, the jaṭā and the potbelly become distinctive features of those gods who were considered to be of the Brāhmaṇa class. For example, Brahmā and Agni. The earliest image (382) shows the god with three faces and a haloed bust superimposed at the back of the central head to complete the number of four. On the reverse is carved an Aśoka tree similar to that in Nāgarājñī and Indra images (392) which also belong to the Kushāṇa period. The right hand of the projecting figure is held in abhayamudrā and the left sholder is covered with drapery like in Buddha images of this period. Images of Brahmā were also worshipped in the Gupta period and several good specimens have been preserved. [Figs. 169-9]. The worship of Brahmā continued in the medieval period when his images with Sarasvatī became popular and have been actually found at many centres throughout the country. Later on during the Muslim period the worship of Brahmā gradually went out of fashion and the belief developed that he had been ousted from the religious orbit due to an alleged utterance of a lie; only a fiction. The main reason was the emergence of Vishnu and Śiva as two great religious symbols which inculcated the worship of only their respective divinities. Consequently Brahmā went into the background and fell into neglect. But at one time his worship extended from the Himālaya to the far South where his images have been found. At present the one living temple of Brahmā is the one at Pushkara near Ajmer.

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Fig. 171

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Fig. 170

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Fig. 174

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Fig. 173

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Fig. 172

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Fig. 175

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Fig. 176

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Fig. 177

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Fig. 178

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Fig. 179

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Fig. 180

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Fig. 181

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VIṢṆU :—Mathura was the centre of Viṣṇu worship from very early times, may be from the fifth century B. C. Clear archaeological proof in the form of Viṣṇu image and inscriptions is forthcoming from the late Śuṅga period in the first century B. C. when Kṣaharāta Śakas (Rañjuvula and his son Soḍāsa) became the rulers at Mathura.

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In the Kuṣāṇa period, however, regular images of Viṣṇu began to be made. Several types of such images are found wearing a mukuṭa on the head and other ornaments on the body, and dressed in a dhotī and a scarf. The position of the four hands is rather remarkable, the right hand is held in abhayamudrā, the corresponding left hand is placed nearly the hip (i. e. akimbo) and holds an amṛta-ghaṭa (monk's bottle or nectar-glass), the two extra hands a mace (gadā) and Chakra respectively. If the two extra hands are excluded, the earliest form of Viṣṇu is exactly similar to that of the Bodhisattva Maitreya and both must be taken to be the products of the same formula. [Fig. 170].

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There are also other image of Viṣṇu with eight hands holding different attributes. There are some statues showing four-armed standing Viṣṇu with Lakṣmī by the side and a small figure of Garuḍa in between them. With the development of the Pañcharātra-Bhāgavata cult there was an elaboration in the iconographic representation of Viṣṇu. In the Gupta period we come across three types of Viṣṇu images in the Mathura school (1) Standing images—(Sthānaka mūrti) of Viṣṇu alone with four arms holding four āyudhas (attributes), (2) The Nṛisiṃha-Varāha-Viṣṇu with a central human face and a Varāha face projecting on one shoulder and a lion face on the other. [Fig.171]. This composite image is very often described in the Purāṇic literature and is also described as the image of Mahā-Viṣṇu or Viśva-rūpa-Viṣṇu (i. e. Viṣṇu in cosmic form). In the Gupta sculpture of the Mathura school several important images of this type have been found. There is a special group of images in which besides the two extra heads of Varāha and Nṛisiṃha a number of other divine figures like the 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras and 12 Ādityas etc. are also depicted on the halo of the divine figure as forming part of his litany. These typical examples represent Mahā-Viṣṇu in his cosmic form. [Fig. 171].

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(3) The third variety of Viṣṇu image in the Gupta period depicts him as Śeṣaśāyī Viṣṇu, i. e. the Viṣṇu sleeping on the Śeṣa. This was an iconographic representation by the symbolic sculptures of the cosmic legend of creation; Śeṣa representing the infinite or the absolute aspect of Brahman and Vishnu symbolising his relative manifestation as the universe in which He Himself pervades.¹

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¹ The Bhāgavatas adopted this significant epithet 'Vishnu' as the name of the creator (veveshṭi vyāpnoti iti Vishṇuḥ, Vishnu is that who is all pervasive). This definition of divinity was at once sanctifying a metaphysical truth and at the same time marked by unique clarity which could be understood by the most ordinary persons. Throughout the Bhāgavata-literature the name Vishnu becomes supreme, the acceptance of this name also had a practical consequence. It helped to achieve the synthesis of the diverse deities into one central divinity. The Bhāgavatas emphasised the fact that Vishnu was the divine creator, preserver and destroyer of the cosmos, i. e. the supreme symbol of the triple manifestation (Traiguṇya) and that again it was Vishnu who was the transcendent of the absolute Brahman beyond all manifestations (Nirguṇa). The synthesis of the numerous tutelary divinities with the god Vishnu as the centre of the things became an easy and convenient process of things. The Śeshaśāyī Vishnu image may be considered as a triumph of symbolic representation in which the infinite absolute and the relative aspects of Brahman (Nirguṇa and Saguṇa Brahman) have been cast into an inalienable alliance and this image rightly became the object of enthusiasm for the Bhāgavata worshippers.

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In the Gupta period details of Krishna's life and his various exploits began to be depicted in sculpture. For example, lifting of the mount Govardhana, and Kāliya-mardana in Mathura art, Shakaṭa-Līlā in the Brahmanical temple at Devagarh, Dhenukāsura Līlā and scenes of Rādhā-Krishna love-sports in the panels of the Stūpa at Paharpur (which are of somewhat later date). Several other scenes are also depicted on terracotta plaques from the site of Suratgarh, Bikāner.

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BALARĀMA : He was worshipped under the name of Saṅkarshaṇa along with Vāsudeva in the early Bhāgavata religion. A very early image of Balarāma was found near Mathura which is now in the Lucknow Museum. Balarāma is standing and has a canopy of serpent hoods round the head as well as the coils of the serpent at his back, and he holds a musala (club) in his right hand and hala (plough) in the left hand. It shows that the iconographic formula of Balarāma had already been determined in the Śuṅga period. His dress is similar to that of the Yaksha images consisting of a heavy turban, conspicuous ear-rings, a scarf and a dhoti. Balarāma images continued to be made during the Kushāṇa and Gupta periods. But they are distinguished not only so much by the serpent hoods but also by the wine cup held in his left hand. In the Gupta images he also wears a long garland on his body and he is showen with four arms.

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ŚIVA - Śiva is known through literary evidence in the Vedic period. There is evidence of Śiva worship also in the Indus Valley. He is there probably represented in the form of Paśupati (lord of creatures). It appears that the worship of Śiva continued as a widespread cult throughout the country i. e. both in the North and in the South. Even in Gandhāra, Bactria, Kapiśā and the region of the Oxus Śiva worship seems to have been an important element of the popular religion. Dr. Foucher has suggested that the Kushāṇas on their coming to India were converted to Śaivism somewhere in the north-west where Śaivism was a predominant factor in the religious beliefs. We know from the coins of Vema-Kadaphises that he gave himself the title of Maheśvara, i. e. a devotee of Śiva. On all his coins without exception Śiva or one of his emblems is depicted to the exculsion of all other deities. The figure of Śiva continued to be shown on the coins of Kanishka, Huvishka and Vāsudeva. In the Kushāṇa period Mathura had become an important head-quarter of the Pāśupata cult of Śaivism. An inscription of the time of Chandra-Gupta II dated 381 A. D. refers to certain Pāśupata teachers who were tenth in descendance from the original founder of the sect and who installed two Śiva Liṅgas by the name of Upamiteśvara and Kapileśvara at Mathura.

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The popularity of the Śiva cult at Mathura is fully reflected in the sculptures of this school. We find that Śiva is represented in several forms as follows:—

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1. Liṅga form of Śiva (Liṅga-vigraha) which is quite plain. [Fig. 172].

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2. Ekamukhī Śiva-Liṅga, i. e. the Liṅga-form with a single human face. [Fig. 173].

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3. Pañchamukhī Śiva Liṅga, i. e. the Liṅga form with four faces in the four directions and the fifth face on the top. Names of the five faces were Sadyojāta, Vāmadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusha, Īśāna.¹ [Fig. 174].

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¹ Symbolism of these various images is stated in the Vishnu-Dharmoltara Purāṇa.
(i) Sadyojāta—Prithivi, the latest form.
(ii) Vāmadeva—Jala (has been symbolised as female element).
(iii) Aghora—Agni.
(iv) Tatpurusha—Vāyu (air, most effective symbol of life).
(v) Īśāna—Ākāśa that overlords over all. These have been represented in the five faces of Śiva. Liṅga is the symbol of creation, the universe, and the five faces represent the five elements.

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4. Śiva standing against the Nandī Bull (the symbol of Kāma). [Nandikeśvara; Fig. 175].

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5. Śiva standing with Pārvatī by his side (Śiva-Pārvatī). In the images of Śiva-Pārvatī together Śiva is represented as Ūrdhva-reta (perfect Brahmachārī). [Fig. 176].

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6. Ardhanārīśvara is shown in a composite image, right half shown as male and the left half female. [Fig. 177].

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SŪRYA—An early image of Sūrya is depicted on a railing pillar at Bodhagayā (c. first century B. C.). Sūrya is seated in a chariot drawn by four horses and he is dressed in a *dhoti*, scarf and turban. As against this we find in the early Kushāṇa art another form of Sūrya wearing coat and trousers which was the Indo-Scythian dress mentioned as the *udichya-vesha*. The form of Sūrya was imported from Iran by the Scythians. The worship of the Sun-god under the name of Mitra, later on Mihira, was very popular in the Iranian religion. Mihira and Mah (Sun and Moon) were special deities honoured by the Parthians also. Both are represented on the coins of Kanishka. They were included in the list of the 27 Yazatas or deities. In the Kushāṇa period the elements of solar iconography are as follows:—

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1. He is represented like a Kushāṇa emperor wearing the Northern dress consisting of a turban, coat fastened with a belt, trousers and boots. Sūrya is the only exception to wear boots. [Fig. 178].

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2. He is seated in European fashion with legs suspended from his seat (*paryaṅkalilāsana*).

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3. He holds in the right hand a flower and in left hand a broad bladed dagger.

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4. He is seated in a chariot drawn by two horses in the earliest images; the number of horses later being increased to four and lastly to seven.

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We also have Sūrya images in standing posture but similar to the above so far as the dress and attributes are concerned. Gradually the dagger was replaced by a lotus and this became the standard type from Gupta period onwards for all the Sūrya images that were made.

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5. Another special feature of Sūrya images during the Gupta period was the representation of his two attendants on each side, viz. Daṇḍa and Piṅgala. Piṅgala is shown holding a pen and ink-pot and Daṇḍa holding a staff in his hand. These images were further elaborated by the addition of the figures of attendant female goddesses, viz. Ūshā and Pratyushā taken from the Indian tradition and Rājñī and Nikshubhā were adopted from the Sasanian tradition under the two Sanskritised names.

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KĀRTTIKEYA—Several good sculptures of Kārttikeya have been found at Mathura. The Kārttikeya cult seems to have been quite popular at Mathura during the Kushāṇa period. Besides Karttikeya several other forms like Kumāra, Vishākha, Skanda, and Mahāsena were worshipped. In the *Kashyapa Saṃhitā*, Revatī-Kalpa Chap., these four are said to be brothers of goddess Shashṭhī, whose fifth brother was Nandikeśvara (i.e. Śiva standing against the Nandī Bull). All these five are found depicted on the coins of Huvishika.

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In the images Kārttikeya is shown as a two-armed figure, holding the right hand in *abhayamudrā* and Śakti in the left hand. Hence he was called Śaktidhara. Sometimes a cock and sometimes a peacock are depicted as his Vāhanas. An important inscribed image of Kārttikeya has been found in a well at Mathura which shows that the model of the Karttikeya image was derived from the early standing Bodhisattva type in Kushāṇa art. [Fig. 179]. Kārttikeya became increasingly of greater importance until in the Gupta period he attained the status almost of a national deity, as is evident from the great epic-poem *Kumāra-sambhava* by Kālidāsa. The number of images also increased in the Gupta period. We also find the representation of Kumārī as one of the divine mothers.

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GAṆEŚA—No image of Gaṇeśa of the Kushāṇa period has yet been found. In the earliest stage Gaṇeśa was only the type of a Yaksha, in which form he is depicted both in the early art of Amaravati and Mathura. In course of time the elephant-headed Yaksha developed in the form of Gaṇapati. In the Gupta period he was represented both as a squalling human figure with elephant’s head and also in a dancing pose.

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INDRA—In Buddhist iconography Indra and Brahmā occur as attendants of the Buddha. Sometimes Indra alone is shown paying homage to the Buddha in the Indraśaila Guhā at Rājagṛiha but in the Kushāṇa art of Mathura the iconography of Indra had a much greater significance. There is a unique image in which Indra is shown as polycephalous (having many heads) figure, i. e. with one figure in the centre and five others emerging out of his shoulders and head. [Fig. 180]. This should be identified as the representation of the *Pañchendra* form of this deity to whom detailed reference is found in the *Pañchendropākhyāna* of the *Mahābhārata* and the *Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa*. Indra is also depicted as Yaksha Vajrapāṇi, i. e. holding a thunderbolt in his hand. The one distinguished feature of Indra images is a high cap, rather a projecting crown, on his head. Sometimes a third eye is also shown over his forehead. [Fig. 181].

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AGNI : In the Pañchāla coins of Agnimitra we always find a deity with a halo of flames. He is depicted on the Kushāṇa coins as an Iranian deity under the name of Athso. No image of the early Kushāṇa period has been found but there are several Gupta sculptures showing Agni as a Brāhmanical deity with a halo of flames round the body and also with *jaṭājūṭa*, a beard, *yajñopavīta*, potbellied and holding *amṛita-ghaṭa* in the right hand.

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LAKSHMĪ : Gaja-Lakshmī is already known in the art of Bharhut, Sanchi, Bodhgaya and Udaigiri. At Mathura this ancient typical figure of Lakshmī continued to be depicted as female figure standing on a lotus, holding two lotuses in the two hands and with a pair of elephants sprinkling water on the head of the goddess with two inverted jars held in the two trunks. But the worship of Lakshmī as the goddess of plenty and prosperity became invariably popular so that freestanding images of the goddess in bigger size began to be made.

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From certain reference in the epics of Aśvaghosha it appears that the more ancient goddess Māyā was replaced by the new goddess Śrī-Lakshmī. In several Kushāṇa statuettes Lakshmī and Hārītī are depicted side by side as the twin consorts of Kubera. [Fig. 182]. She was also later on shown as the wife of Gaṇeśa. The association of Lakshmī with Vishṇu is quite well known and was also recognised in earlier Kushāṇa art. The iconographic conception, however, became clear but by the Gupta period when she is depicted frequently as the consort of Vishṇu and is depicted as shampooing his feet in the Śeshaśāyī form.

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DURGĀ—There are images of Durgā having four arms and seated on a lion assignable to the Kushāṇa period but the form, which was more popular, was that of Mahishāsuramardinī, i.e. goddess Durgā in the form of killing the demon. [Fig. 183]. Her images with two, four and six arms are found in considerable number in Kushāṇa and Gupta art. The most eloquent description of her exploits and power is contained in the Devī-Māhātmya of the Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa. The worship of Mahishāsuramardinī became popular throughout the country and we find a magnificent representation of the conflict of the goddess riding on a lion with the demon Mahishāsura in the early Pallava art.

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SAPTA-MĀTṚIKĀ—In the Kushāṇa period the worship of the female goddess of the form of Reality as so many goddesses found its most tangible expression as the sculptures representing a group of the Sapta-Māṭṛikās (Seven Divine Mothers), Brahmāṇī, Vaishṇavī, Ambikā-Parvatī, Indrāṇī, Kaumārī, Vārāhī, Nārasimhī, and Chāmuṇḍā.¹ [Fig. 184].

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¹ These were the images of Śakti of the respective gods. As a matter of fact these were developed in the mystic symbolism of Yoga and depicted Śakties of various Chakras or nervous centres in the body. These were known as the Māṭṛikās. Gradually their number increased to 8, 9, 10, 12 ond 16 (Shoḍaśa Māṭṛikās). All these again were the varying symbols of an esoteric discipline of thought and meditation.

Linked texts (17)

Vāyupurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Kāśyapasaṃhitā (Vṛddhajīvakīyatantra) — Mārīca Kaśyapa & Vātsya, Sanskrit
Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Aṣṭādhyāyī — Pāṇini, Sanskrit
Kumārasaṃbhava — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit
Devīmāhātmya — Sanskrit
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa — Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Kuṣāṇa
Bodh Gayā
Sāñcī
Bharhut
Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
Gudimallam
Bhita
Paharpur