Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c15.s2: Nāgārjunikoṇḍa Stūpa

Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c15.s2

Language: English

c15.s2.t1 History and Inscriptions — 6 parts
c15.s2.t2 Mahāchetiyas — 5 parts
c15.s2.t3 The Great Stūpa (Mahāchetiya, Mahāthūpa) — 11 parts
c15.s2.t4 Palace — 2 parts
c15.s2.t5 Stadium (Ākrīḍa or Mallaśālā) — 17 parts

Nāgārjunikoṇḍa Stūpa

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The last great Stūpa in the Veṅgi country was raised at Nagarjunikoda, literally Nāgārjuna's Hill, a place on the right bank of the Krishna in the Palnāḍ Taluk of the Guntur district, ninteen miles from Macherla station. This Stūpa was sited on the route towards the Karṇāṭa country, 60 miles above Amaravati as the crow flies. Nagarjunikonda was a citadel defended on the three sides by hills and on the fourth by the Kṛiṣhṇa, and, therefore, selected as the capital of the Ikshvāku kings, known as Vijayapurī in their inscriptions. The Kṛiṣhṇa, known to Ptolemy as Maisolos, was a mighty river in ancient times being much more navigable up to the sea, and, therefore, provided inter-communication amongst the various centres of Veṅgi as Nagarjunikonda, Amaravati, Jaggayyapeta, Ghaṇṭasāla, Gummadidurru, Bezwada, and Bhattiprolu. The Kṛiṣhṇa valley at Vijayapurī is dotted with a number of mounds and groups of pillars marking the sites of Maṇḍapas and also has in its centre the ruins of a big palace. The oceanic trade with the Dvīpāntara islands and the Roman world as well as along the inland routes converging in the Veṅgi country made this a remarkable place for wealth and prosperity which became manifest in the Great Stūpa and other Buddhist establishments and monasteries found here.

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The site was discovered in 1926 and fortunately being situated in the midst of hills and forests had escaped human spoliation. According to Longhurst excavations (1927-31), the discoveries included a number of ruined monasteries, apsidal temples, Stūpas, inscriptions, coins, relics, pottery, statues and over four hundred magnificent bas-relifs in the Amaravati style and belonging to the same period. These are now Fig. 213 stored in a local museum and this collection of sculptures and statues is the largest and finest ever made in southern India.

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Fig. 212 a

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Fig. 212 b

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Fig. 214

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Fig. 215

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Fig. 216 a] [Figure: Fig. 217] [Figure: Fig. 216 b

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Fig. 219

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Fig. 220

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Fig. 218

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Fig. 222

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Fig. 221

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Fig. 223

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Fig. 224

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Fig. 225

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Fig. 223 a

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Fig. 226

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Fig. 227

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This work of excavation was followed by T. N. Ramachandran from 1938 to 1940, and resumed from 1954 for a period of five years to forestall the Nāgārjunsāgar dam inundation bringing to light the existence of structural remains, mostly Vihāras, Stūpas, Śilā-Maṇḍapas Chaityagṛihas, temples including those of Hārītī, Kārttikeya and Śiva.

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The extensive valley of Nallamalai known as Śrīparvata in ancient times contains countless archaeological remains including the foundations and ruined buildings of the well-planned Capital of Vijayapurī of the Ikshvāku kings, who had probably their original home in Dakshiṇa Kosala and were first the feudatories (2nd half of the 2nd Cent. A. D.) of the Sātavāhanas and then independent sovereigns from the time of Vasisṭhīputra Śrī Kshāntimūla.

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The kings were devoted followers of Vedic Brahmanism, but their queens were votaries of Buddhism who created the wonderful monuments of Nagarjunikonda.

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Yuwan Chwang who visited the place writes about the monastery: "In the midst of long galleries with eaves for walking under and high towers, the storeyed building reaches to the height of five storeys, each storey with four halls and vihāras enclosed. In each vihāra was a statue of the Buddha cast is gold, of life size, wrought with consummate art and singularly adorned."

History and Inscriptions

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No less than seventeen inscribed āyaka-pillars were found which acquiant us with the history of local Ikshvāku dynasty and the monuments. The kings were of Brāhmanical faith but the queens were Buddhist and endowed these foundations. One of the rulers was King Chāmtimūla, whose uterine sister was Chāmtisiri. Her name occurs in nine pillar-inscriptions and she was the main benefactress who built the Mahāchetiya in the year 6 of King Vīrapurisadata, son of Chāmtimūla. Another inscription of this king dated in the year 20 was found at Jaggayyapeta. To the east of the Mahāchetiya Chāmtisiri also dedicated in the year 18 of the king a vihāra and a chaityagṛiha, referred to in the inscription firstly by this name, and secondly as a stone maṇḍapa surrounded by a cloister (chātusāla-parigahitam sela-maṇṭavam). The building was dedicated to the āchāryas of Aparamahāvinaseliya sect. Besides Chāmtisiri, paternal aunt (pituchhā) of the reigning king Vīrapurisadata, other ladies named in the inscriptions were also associated with these pious foundations. Another chaityagṛiha was built by Upāsikā Bodhisiri. It is interesting that the long inscription of Bodhisiri states that the shrine was dedicated to the Buddhist community of Tāmraparṇi (Ceylon), who took part in the conversion to Buddhism of the people of Kashmīra Maṇḍala, Gandhāra, Chīna, Tosali (Orissa), Aparānta (Konkan), Vaṅga, Vanavāsa (Karṇāṭa), Yavana (probably Alasanda or Alexandria) and Damila (Tamila land). She also constructed a śilā-maṇḍapa on the eastern gate of the Ghaṇṭasāla (Kaṇṭakaśaila) Stūpa. The hill on which her Stūpa stood is named as Chulla Dhammagiri (modern, Nāharāllaḍḍu, at a distance of 2 furlongs to the east of the great Stūpa on Śrīparvata.

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The inscriptions give names of two monasteries, one Kulaha Vihāra and the other Sīhala Vihāra, the latter for the Ceylonese monks. Other sects include Aparamahāvinaseliya (same as Pali, Aparaseliya, as distinguished from the Pūrvaseliyas of Amaravati), Mahīsāsaka (a subdivision of the Theravādins and appears to have flourished in the Andhra country), and Bahusuliya (Bahuśrutiya, a subdivision of the Gokulika sect belonging to the Mahāsaṅghikas). The Saṅgha besides its local organisation had also a branch named Chatudisa Saṅgha (i. e. the International Buddhist Church for the reception of foreign monks (later on referred to under this name in the Nālanda C. P. of Devapāla) which functioned with great vitality under its Āchāryas, Dhammakathikas, Desakas and Vāchakas.

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The epigraphs also refer to a number of architectural terms, e. g. mahā-chetiya, mahāthūpa (Great Stūpa), mahāvihāra, vihāra, chetiyaghara, chātusāla maṇḍapa (nave with cells), padhānasāla (hall of meditation), bodhi-rukkha-pāsāda (=bodhigharaprāsāda, temple of the bodhi tree), selamamtava, ovaraka (cell), alimdā (=alinda, entrance hall), taḍāka (pond), khaniya (cistern), khambha, selakhambha, selathambha, paṭa (slab), sapatasamthara (floor covered with slabs), unisa (coping-stone, but here also the frieze running along the top of the sculptured facing of a Stūpa), and dvāra (gateway). The superintendent of works, Navakammika, appointed by the royal ladies, took charge of the execution of these monuments of piety (Navakamma) and under his direction were employed stone-sculptors (selavaḍhaki) and architects (āvesani, Skt. āveśanin).¹

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¹ The style of the epigraphs shows several noteworthy points which link them with early Gupta inscriptions of a century later, e. g. such epithets as Agihot-agithoma-vājapeya-asamedhayājisa aneka-hiraṇa-koṭi-go-satasahasa-hala-satasahasapadāyisa savathesu apatihata-saṃkapasa, etc. Long epithets for Buddha as found in the Divyāvadāna and Lalitavistara breathe life in these inscriptions such as jita-kāma-krodha-bhaya-harisa-tarisa-moha-dosa-sadāpita-Māra-bala-dapa-māna-pasamana-karasa-dasa-bala-mahābalasa athamgamaga-dhama-chaka-pavatakas chaka-lakhaṇo-sukumāra-sujāta-charaṇasa taruṇa-divasa-kara-pabhasa sarada-sasi-soma-darisanasa sava-loka-chita-mahitasa Budhasa.

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The numerous ruined monuments indicate that during the second-third centuries A. D. Vijayapurī was one of the largest and most important Buddhistic settlements in Southern India and a great place of pilgrimage and a seat of learning.

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A big stone-built wharf or landing place for ships (250' × 50' × about 6' high along the water front) on the Krishna has also been exposed at Nagarjunikonda. All other monuments were built of large-sized bricks (20" × 10" × 3", similar to those at Bulandibag and Amaravati), which were joined with mud-mortar, The walls were plastered and whitewashed (sudhākamma) for the purpose of painting and gilding. The āyaka-pillars, floors and the important sculptures, both carved on the ūrdhvapatta slabs and free-standing, were made of white or grey limestone resembling marble and easy to work, known in ancient times as medavaṇṇa pāsāṇa, marrow-coloured stone, which was a local variety of marble.

Mahāchetiyas

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The Stūpas of northern India are generally of solid brick-construction, but the architecture of the Stūpas at Nagarjunikonda follows the plan of a wheel, with hub (nābhi), spokes (ara) and encircling felly (nemichakra). The open spaces between the radiating walls forming the spokes were filled in with earth before the brick-casing of the Stūpa was built up and the dome closed. As the walls were raised towards the dome their cross-section took the form of a giant umbrella since with their curvature they were higher towards the centre and lower at the periphery. [Fig. 217].

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The Stūpas were built in all sizes; the smallest being 20' in diameter and the biggest Mahāchetiya 120'. In the smaller Stūpas, the central hub took the form of a square pillar, but in larger ones it was circular. After the brick-work and mud-filling was finished the exterior of the Stūpa was plastered with lime, the technical process being known as sudhākamma and the truncated top crowned with umbrellas known as chhatrakamma. At the base was a drum and above it the oval dome gradually rising to a towering height of 60 to 90 feet in proportion to its diameter. At the level of the height of the drum were four projecting platforms (āyaka-mañcha or mañjūshā) with a row of five pillars (āyaka-khambha), which was a distinguishing feature of all the Āndhra Stūpas as already stated.

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There were three flower-offering platforms called puphadhāna or pushpagrahaṇi vedikā (Mahāvaṃsa, 33.22), on each of the four sides of the Stūpa and in a line with the central one was built the āyaka platform. The āyaka platforms were regarded as the most important features of the Stūpas and no trouble or expense was spared in making them as beautiful and attractive as possible. This is shown by the sculptured slabs and lintels most beautifully carved recovered from the actual remains of the āyaka platforms of the Nagarjunikonda Stūpas.

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Two types of Stūpas may be distinguished at Nagarjunikonda, viz. plain and profusely decorated. This is shown by the representations on the Stūpa-paṭṭas and by the actual remains. The first one was faced with stucco work (sudhākarma), but gradually the conception of beautifying the Stūpa with several friezes of carved slabs developed. This was conceived as a śilāmaya-kañchuka or lithic robe enveloping the Stūpa, also spoken of as a deva-dūshya or divine garment (Mahāvaṃsa, 33.23, 25) owing to which the Stūpa was given the new name of Dussa-thūpa (Skt. Dūshya-stūpa, Mahāvaṃsa, 31.11). Its construction was naturally regarded as a miracle (riddhi). In the plain type the upper part of the dome is shown encircled by a festoon-ornament, presumably executed in plaster. The drum and āyaka-platforms are ornamented with the vedikā design and a few Jātaka scenes.

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In the second type embellished with elaborate decorative frieze several rows of sculptured slabs (ūrdhvapaṭṭa) were added to the exterior face of the brick-work from the drum to the middle portion of the dome or the level of the āyaka platform above which the decoration was executed in stucco owing to the fact the curved surface of the dome did not fit in with the flat slabs. The front portion of the āyaka-platform was carved with the figure of Buddha or one of his life-scenes and the other slabs depicted the various Jātakas and popular life-scenes. The other friezes consisted of rows of Stūpa-paṭṭas, Puṇṇagaṭapaṅkti, Chakrapaṭṭas, dancing gods (naṭchaka devatā), divine figures playing on musical instruments (turiyavādaka devatā), gods paying adoration (añjalipaggahā devā), women in dramatic poses (naṭakaṭṭhi), many other kinds of lotus (padumaka) and floral (pupphapaṅkti) decorations and animal motifs (chatuppadapaṅkti). The body of the Dhātugarbha was beautified with many such decorative forms (sabbarūpaka) and was gilded (hemakuṭṭima).

The Great Stūpa (Mahāchetiya, Mahāthūpa)

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The Great Stūpa at Nagarjunikonda was unencased by marble slabs, but only a plain brick-structure (size of bricks, 20″ × 10″ × 3″) with a wheel-like interior having a hub and radiating walls. This was covered with plaster from top to bottom and all its decoration executed in stucco relief excepting the āyaka-platforms and pillars which were of marble. Its diameter was 106′, probable height of the dome 70 to 80 feet, a pradakshiṇāpatha on the ground floor 13′ wide, enclosed by a wooden railing erected on brick foundations. The āryaka platform projecting as an offset from the rising height of the dome measured 22′ in length and 5′ in width. There was an intermediate circumambulatory path about 7′ wide, also enclosed by a railing. On the top of the dome was the usual harmikā with a stout post in the centre which was crowned by a series of three parasols, the lowermost of which was known as Human (Mānusha-chhatra), the middle one as Divine (Divya-) and the uppermost as the symbol of Deliberation (Vimukti-, Mahāvaṃśa, 31.91). [Fig. 218].

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These being the three parasols over the head of the Buddha, the lord of the three worlds (Trichhatradhārī Lokanātha Śāstā), it was considered essential to honour his relics with this emblem (dhātuchhatena pūjesi). The Stūpa-slabs show that the central chhatrāvali was flanked on the two sides by a series of seven parasols probably corresponding to the seven lokas and by figures holding garlands (mālādhārī), and other figures holding hands in adoration (anjalipaggahā) or flying devas holding full-vases (pūrṇaghaṭadhārī), or sometimes dwarfish Yaksha figures. The āyaka slabs showing these various details of the architecture of the big Stūpa from its bottom to the top are of the finest description and works of great merit.

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The excavations exposed that there were forty inside chambers filled with earth. In one of them to the north-west, removed from the centre as was invariably the case with all the Stūpas at Nagarjunikonda, was found the relic-casket (dhātu-manjūshā), containing a gold reliquary placed inside a Stūpa-shaped silver one together with a few gold flowers, pearls, garnets and crystals (hema-pushpa and ratnapushpa). No portion of any carved slab was found in the debris round the Stūpa, testifying to its originally plain character.

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The inscriptions state that the Māhāchetiya was dedicated to the Buddha and hence the relics may be taken to be those of the Great Teacher. It is thus very probable that the original Stūpa was much older and it was a case of converting an alesākhya into a mahesākhya Stūpa as often mentioned in the Divyāvadāna, and this enlargement seems to have been the work of queen Chāmtisiri.

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Longhurst found nine Stūpas in the valley in a more or less ruined condition. Only four of them were embellished with highly decorative slabs of the śilākañchuka type which was then being evolved as the divine corpus of the Lokottara Buddha. It was this belief exemplified in the renovated Mahāchetiyas at Amaravati, Nagarjunikonda and Sarnath (Dhamekha).

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Stūpas 2 and 3 although small ones, were profusely decorated with carved stone slabs and several āyaka-cornice stones of great beauty that were recovered from the site. In fact, the best sculptures of the art at Vijayapurī belong to these two Stūpas. Near Stūpa 2 were found an apsidal chaitya-hall and several Vihāras.

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Stūpa 4 was a plain structure with āyaka-platforms and pillars and its chambers contained the relics of some saints or teachers who were resident in the local Vihāras. Similar was the case with Stūpa 5.

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Stūpa 6 was originally of the decorative class, about 40' in diameter, situated away from the monastic sites. It was provided with āyaka-platforms and pillars and the front face below the central pillar was carved with a bas-relief showing the Buddha preaching or Turning the Wheel-of-Law. The contents of the reliquary included two thin medallions of gold bearing stamped figures of a male and a female in genuine classical type as shown by their coiffure, eyes and necks. Probably the small bone-relic in the gold casket belonged to a foreign distinguished monk teacher at this site. [Figs. 219-20].

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Near Stūpa 7 was found a Vihāra having a large square maṇḍapa of 60', with pillars and cells. The relic-casket found in Stūpa 8 is worth mentioning being the finest and most carefully made unlike the relic-caskets found in other Stūpas which were placed in ordinary small red earthenware pots, those recovered from Stūpa 8 were placed inside a stone casket shaped like a miniature Stūpa, one foot four inches high with tee (i. e. harmikā) and umbrella complete. The tiny umbrella canopy was of stone fixed to the tee with a small iron rod. The casket is made of four separate pieces of stone and the dome is ornamented in relief with the usual garland device. Inside the stone casket was a pottery-made casket of similar shape, 6 inches high, recovered with a pale green glaze. This again contained a copper casket 4 inches high and of similar shape to the last. Within the latter was a small silver casket, 2 inches in height, containing a beautiful little gold reliquary in the from of a Stūpa, 1½ inches high. The latter contained a bone relic, gold lotus and jasmine flowers and a few decayed pearl and coral beads. (Longhurst). [Fig. 221].

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Stūpa 9 (42' in diameter) was of the cased type with a good number of beautifully sculptured slabs most of which were recovered.

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In the later excavations of 1954 some more Stūpas, Vihāras and temples were exposed, built on the same wheel-like architectural pattern (chetiyāvaṭṭa). A shrine of the goddess Hārītī built on the hill and approached by a flight of steps was brought to light. The seated image is in style of 4-5th century A.D. Two more temples of Śiva (Pushpabhadraswāmin) and Kārttikeya are also worth mentioning.

Palace

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As regards the citadel area of Vijayapurī, remains of its ditch, city-gates and the grand fortification wall (prākāra) were found, which belonged to the flourishing period of the Ikshvāku kings, formed important components of the toun-planning of that age. The citadel wall which is 16' high in some places could be traced in two phases; the earlier one being a mud rampart 80' wide at the base (vapra) resting on the earth. The second phase was represented by a burnt-brick wall, 9 to 14 feet thick, generally built either directly on the existing rampart or on a secondary filling over it, but on naturally high grounds directly on the bare rock-surface. The lofty fortification wall was surrounded on all sides, excepting for the hilly portion on the south side, by a ditch (parikhā, khāta), 12' in depth and varying from 74 to 132 feet in width.

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The eastern gateway led into the extensive first court—Prathama Kakshyā—in which barracks for soldiers, stables for royal horses (Rāja-mandurā) and a nicely-plastered masonry cistern (pushkariṇī) have been found tallying with the architectural planning of the capital and palace. The western gateway with a minimum width of 17', faced the Kṛṣṇā, and in the north side of the wall was a postern gate (pārśvadvāra) to serve the palace. [Fig. 222].

Stadium (Ākrīḍa or Mallaśālā)

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A unique monument exposed at Nagarjunikonda to the north of the citadel is the Ākrīḍa or the place of wrestling tournaments, Mallaśālā, also called Akshavāṭaka. Although described many a time in literary texts actual examples are not preserved excepting this unique building at Vijayapurī sited along the bank of the Kṛṣṇā. It appears that this arena or ground for wrestling contests was conceived on a grand scale and the royalty seated under the central pavilion on the western side also witnessed the bouts. According to the excavator:

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Oriented along the cardinal points, the stadium, consisted of a central arena, 309' long, 259' wide and 15' deep, enclosed on all four sides by flights of steps with 2' wide treads and having a pavilion on the west, the all constructed of burnt bricks. In continuation of the topmost steps, there was a platform all round, the width of which as noted on the southern side, was 11'. On this side six staircases, placed at regular intervals, each measuring 6' in width, connected the arena with the platform. They were strengthened by wooden or stone nosings, for the fitting of which slits were provided on side in the structure. Both treads and risers of the staircases were smaller than those of the steps that ran around the stadium, indicating that while the former served as passages the latter were evidently meant for sitting. The pavilion, at the middle of the western side, showed three distinct phases. Square or oblong holes in the floors of the first and second phases suggested the use of pillars for holding the roof, of which tiles and finials were found all over the area. The dimensions of the pavilions of the three phases, beginning from the earliest, were respectively 48' x 39', 69' x 33' and 50' x 44'. Associated with the latest pavilion was an enclosure-wall, with an entrance on the west. The debris of the structures of the third phase was covered with a 9' thick layer of dark silt, which was disturbed and finally sealed by a 10' to 12' thick deposit of sand. A 2' wide drain passing through the northern wall of the stadium, cleared out the rain-water from the arena.¹

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¹ Indian Archaeology, A Review, 1957-58, pp. 7-8.

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The Nagarjunikonda Stūpas like that at Amaravati are remarkable for the wealth of their sculptures. The carved slabs are rich in beauty and contents. They were fixed in the drum, dome and the āyaka-platforms. The favourite scenes depicted on these slabs were generally representations of Stūpas (Stūpapaṭṭa), while those ornamenting the āyaka-platforms portrayed the Buddha or his life-scenes. Above the drum the slabs decorating the base of the dome were also about 2' in width and from 3 to 4 ft. in height and cut on the curve, that is with a slightly convex front and a concave back to fit the curved surface of the dome. The front of the slab was divided into two or three separate horizontal panels with an ornamental border at the top which formed the frieze around the dome and also denoted the cessation of the stone work, as above this line, all ornamentation was in plaster owing to the difficulty of fixing stone slabs to the curved surface of the dome. Sometimes, the frieze was built separately with smaller horizontal slabs specially cut for the purpose and the favourite design for such slabs was the festoon device in the form of figures carrying huge garland (mālādhārī devāḥ).

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The following scenes are depicted on the slabs found by Longhurst: 1. Bodhisattva in the Tushita Heaven being exhorted by the Devas to take birth on the earth. The Bodhisattva is seated in the centre on a throne with right leg flexed and left hanging down (ardhamahārājalīlāsana), with right hand in the attitude of accepting the request and a number of eight divine figures standing and seated around him. The composition is well conceived with a symmetry that is usual on the Veṅgi slabs and the neat beauty of the carvings is as attractive as possible; all the figures being embellished by conspicuous crowns and ornaments. The slab is framed on the top by a three-fold frieze consisting of a meandering lotus garland, a line of lions (Vyāghrapaṅkti) and a row of triratna symbols (triratna-paṅkti) (Longhurst, pl. XIX c).

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2. Descent of Bodhisattva in the form of a white elephant (Garbhāvakrānti). The Bodhisattva is being worshipped by Devas and his Vimāna is being transported on the shoulders of Devas (Longhurst, pl. XIX d). [Fig. 223]

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3. Interpretation of Dream (svapna kathana). King Śuddhodana hearing the dream of Māyā Devī summoned an astrologer to interpret the dream, who declared that the queen would give birth to a son who would either be an universal monarch (a Chakravartī) or a Yogī Buddha. On the left are shown King Śuddhodana and queen Māyā seated on their respective thrones with female attendants. On the right are four seated figures, apparently four Devas to protect Māyā in her pregnancy. Below is the soothsayer in the form of an old Brāhmanical Ṛishi. The central figure holding a spouted waterpot is Indra.

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4. Birth and Seven Steps--Queen Māyā Devī is standing in *tribhaṅga* pose under a blossoming Śāla tree of much bigger size than usual with a female chowri-bearer on left and a spouted water jar. The presence of the jar is indicative of the First Bath. A female figure is repeated on the right side with a *chhatra* and two chawries over her head under a spreading Śāla tree. Figures of four Lokapāla gods hold, indicative of the royal presence of the Bodhisattva, the long scarf bearing the marks of the first seven steps of the Bodhisattva. The seven steps (*sapta-pada*) was an ancient Vedic symbol having reference to the seven component parts of creation and admitted into the Buddhist cosmology as illustrated here so prominently. The Nativity (*jāti*) and the Seven Steps are graphically treated in bas-relief in plate 20 (b) of Longhurst.

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5. ARRIVAL OF ASITA :—Buddha's birth was an event of great rejoicings in the heavenly world of the 33 gods (*trayastriṃśa svarga*) and also the royal palace of Kapilavastu. Asita, an old Brahmanical Ṛishi hearing of the news came to the royal palace, cast the horoscope at the request of the king and foretold the future greatness of the child. . The sculptured slab (Longhurst pl. XXI (a) ) shows the scene of the presentation of child Buddha at the Śākyavardhana Chaitya. Queen Māyā Devī is presenting the child to the deity who stands up in a human form and offers his adoration with folded hands to the Bodhisattva whose foot-prints are stamped on a cloth flanked by two Chawri-bearers. On right side under a pavilion is seated king Śuddhodana on a royal throne having a high backed *toraṇa*, a couple of Chawri-bearers stand at the back, Queen Māyā is standing with folded hands, in front is seated an old sage with a spiral pile of matted locks on his head and the child Buddha in his arms shown by two small foot-prints on a scarf.

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6. THE GREAT RENUNCIATION (*Abhinishkramaṇa*) :—Part of the panel is lost but what remains shows on the left Gautama giving his ornaments to Chhanda and bidding him return with horse to Kapilavastu. Standing behind the Bodhisattva is the hunter with whom he exchanges garments. Three gods in *añjali-mudrā* await the cutting of the hair to take it to heaven. In the righthand corner of the panel Chhanda and the horse are depicted returning home (Longhurst, pl. XXI (b) ).

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7. TRANSPORTATION OF GAUTAMA'S HEADDRESS TO HEAVEN AND THE CELEBRATION OF THE CHŪḌĀMAHA FESTIVAL :—This is a favourite subject of the Andhra sculptors which they have depicted with great zest and joyous feeling. In the centre a dancing *Deva* figure with two other *Devas* is transporting the basket with the bejewelled head-dress and the large number of dancing and merrymaking *Devas* frame the panel on the four sides (Longhurst pl. XXII (a) ).

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8. ASSAULT OF MĀRA AND ENLIGHTENMENT (*Māra-dharshaṇa, Saṃbodhi*):—In this panel Māra is depicted on the left in a mood of discomfiture with two of his daughters baffled in their attempt to tempt the Buddha. In the right side is a host of Māra’s demons armed with weapons and shown with ugly faces. The majestic figure of the haloed Buddha is shown in the centre seated in *Padmāsana* under the Bodhi tree (Longhurst, pl. XXII (b) ).

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Another panel depicts the Buddha protected against rain by the canopy of hoods of the Nāga Muchalinda who dwelt in a neighbouring pond of the Uruvilva village at Bodha Gayā.

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9. DECISION OF THE BUDDHA TO BECOME A TEACHER OF THE MANKIND:—When the Buddha had attained enlightenment he first fasted for 49 days seated at the foot of the Bodhi tree. This scence is seldom depicted outside Gandhāra where the skeletal frame of ascetic has been shown in several good sculptures. After accepting Sujātā’s milky food Buddha remained in doubt if he should impart knowledge to others. The Devas then entreated of him and he accepted their request to teach mankind what he had himself learnt. In this panel Buddha seated in a lotus-pose under the Bodhi tree is surrounded by a group of divine figures making their humble prayer to him to became the universal teacher (Longhurst, pl. XXIII (a) ).

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10. FIRST SERMON :—Prevailed upon by the prayers of gods, Buddha decided to preach his law and thought of his five companions who were then living in the Deer Park at Sarnath a suberb of Varanasi. He came there and delivered the First Sermon known as the turning of the law (*Dharmachakra pravartana*) (Longhurst, pl. No. 24 (a)). In the panel the haloed figure of Buddha is seated on a raised platform marked by two antelopes in front and flanked by two Chawri-bearers, two mendicant figures and two princely figures. The identification is not quite certain and it may combine the First Sermon with the conversion of Yaśa.

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11. Amongst other scenes the slabs show the Buddha holding two relic-caskets with spouted vases before a group of Nāgas,—such reliquaries really being found inside the Stūpas (Longhurst, pl. XXIV (b)); Converston of king Kappina (Longhurst, pl. XXV (a)), a Chakravartin surrounded by Seven Jewels (Longhurst, pl. XXX (b)), Conversion of Yaksha Ālavaka (Longhurst, pl. XXXI (b)), Siddhartha stringing the mighty bow, subjugation of the elephant Nālagiri (Longhurst, p. XXXII (b)); Dīpaṅkara paying homage to the Buddha (Longhurst, XXXIV (a)), admission of the six Śākya princes and the barber Upāli to the order (Long. XXXIV (b)); Buddha and Nanda on a visit to heaven (XXXV (a)), the gift of earth, in the left side panel of which occurs the most beautiful standing femal figure on a *siṃha-makara* base ever rendered in Andhra art; the novice Suvana and the Nāga king Paṇṇaka (pl. XXXVII (a)), Lady Amarā and the four wise men, Chāmpeyya Jātaka (XXXVIII (b)), Māndhātā Jātaka (IXL (a b)), Nāga king Apalāla subdued by the Buddha (XL (a b)), Śibi Jātaka XLII (a), Buddha visited by Indra and Pañchaśikha Gandharva XLIV (a-b); Daśaratha Jātaka (XLV (a)) Mahāpaduma Jātaka (XLV (b)), Ghaṭa Jātaka (XLVI (a)), Dighitikosala Jātaka (XLVII (a)). The sculptures from the Nāgārjunikoṇḍa Stūpas illustrate a quality of plastic art in which the perfect chiselling done by the great masters has left behind permanent records of beauty seldom attained elsewhere. The smaller panels specially dividing the slabs from each other or their wider panels and consisting of pairs of male and famale figures in different poses (*Naṭaka strī*) are examples of perfect beauty dwelling out from the hearts of great masters with long experience behind them. A detailed study of the scenes on both kinds of slabs demonstrates that the decorative motifs of preceding Śuṅga and Kuṣāṇa art on the one hand and coming Gupta art on the other are represented in the transitional style of the Kṛṣṇā Valley. Many of the Buddhist scenes depicting the Jātaka and the life details of Buddha were now reorganised by the Andhra artisans with such elaboration as holds good in Gupta art, e. g. the Chāmpeyya Jātaka and the Assault of Māra. The pictorial quality obtained by these sculptors creates the foremost impression in which the detailed execution, the clear composition and the ornate nature of the human figures with definite iconographic details and the integrated accomplishment of the decorative scheme of the drum and the dome and the Āyaka platforms, were conceived in great detail but with superb mastery and skill. The sweet delicacy of carving (*mādhurya*), life-like expressing, rippling movement in the limbs of the figure, the dancing poses on the two sides of the vertical line (*lasatīva cha bhūlambaḥ*), the rendering of all kinds of difficult poses, the metal-like details of carving,¹ the fondness for numerous figures to crowd the composition in a peripheral frame round the conspicuous central figure of the scene, such charming qualities make Andhra art its high rank in the story of Indian aesthetic endeavours.

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¹ *Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa*, III, ch. 43.21.