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Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c7.s6: Seals

Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c7.s6

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Seals

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About 1200 steatite seals found at Mohenjo-daro alone occupy an important place in Indus Valley art. The normal size is from ¾" to 1¼" in length, the shape being square, having a perforated boss at the back for handling and suspension. There are seals without the boss also and some of round shape. Only about six specimens of cylinder seals have been found. In manufacture the rough stone was cut with a saw as in the case of beads and finished with a knife and abrasive, the fine carving being done with a burin or fine chisel and drill with utmost care of which the craftsmen were capable. The seals were a mass-produced commodity, "little masterpieces of controlled realism, with a monumental strength, in one sense out of all proportion to their size and in another entirely related to it, their average attainment being exceedingly high" (Wheeler, *The Indus Civilization*, p. 76).

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The intaglios or engraved designs on the seals include a wide range of animals with some pictographic signs. Some have only linear designs including the *Svastika*, multiple squares set concentrically, a cross pattern both plain and multiple. It should be noted that the Indus Valley seals have no resemblance either in shape or device or in the pictographic signs with any seals of Sumer or other civilizations of Western Asia. The technique of cutting and polishing the seal with its white lustre was an invention *sui generis* or unique to the Indus Valley people which no other people of antiquity can share with them. Their independence is established in many other fields, e.g. the script of which not a single sign out of 400 has been traced elsewhere, a good deal of pottery, ornaments and decorative designs; no doubt they had wider contacts and perhaps colonies of Indian merchants settled in Mesopotamia, but that was in the normal course of trade and the creative genius of the people in many fields asserted itself in their own land in accordance with their own inspiration.

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PILLAR ON THE UNICORN SEALS—The most frequently represented ox-like beast with a single horn, usually described as unicorn (*Ekaśṛiṅga*) may be identified with *Śṛiṅga Vṛisha* (RV. VIII. 17.13, AV.20.5.7). In front of the animal is a curious object which seems to be a standard, or banner with a religious significance. In almost all examples the banner consists of three distinct parts, viz. (i) a round tapering shaft, (ii) a bowl-like top which is either pimpled like the seed-vessel of a lotus or with fluted ribs, and a square or round *Vedikā*. The bowl-like object may be a *Kuṇḍa*, from which the deity symbolised as the unicorn (*Śṛiṅga-Vṛisha*) quaffed his potions of an exhilarating drink. The shaft is extended further from the centre of the bowl and on the summit is a round or square object very much resembling the early railings, consting of two or three cross-bars and upright posts. In the illustrations to volumes by Marshall, Vatsa and Mackay these details are of undoubted certainty. For example, Vatsa plate 86. 20 shows the railing with three cross-bars; 86.25 with two cross-bars; 86.29 with a single row of cross-bars; 86. 16 and 34 only with uprights and no cross-bars. These variations may be detected in many other examples. In Vatsa, plate 88.68 the upper-most projection of the shaft is better shown. In some examples the railing is dome-shaped. In others the pillar shaft does not project above the railing. In still others the railing and the capital of the pillar are contiguous as in Mackay, plate 95.474,486. In some cases the posts of the domed upper portion are curved or tilted, showing clearly that the railing was a bamboo construction as it should have been in that early stage (Mackay, plate 95.578, 585, 588 and many other examples). This is truly the shape of a thatched hut or *Parṇaśālā*. In one case there are about half a dozen rows of cross-bars between two pillars only (Marshall, 105.641). In some clear examples the height of the lofty column is quite well marked (Marshall, 105, 55 3).

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The important question arises about its identification The shaft surmounted by a bowl or cauldron (*Chamasa* or *Charu*) and supporting on its top a railed structure, both open to the sky and also having a domed roof, appears to be deliberately designed as an outstanding symbol or banner of a deity. The shaft is the common element between this column and the early historic pillars. The middle portion of this ensign corresponds to the abacus or drum portion of the capital of the later pillars. The uppermost portion of the historic pillars shows a *Dharma-Chakra* or animal figures like elephant, bull, lion, horse, which were the four sacred animals (*Mahā-Ājāneya Paśu*) with a long unbroken tradition in Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmanism. In the case of the *Stūpa* the top-most portion is the *Harmikā* comprising a *Chhatra* standing in the centre of the *Vdeikā*. This was considered the Abode of Gods. It appears that in the Indus Valley also the upper-most portion represents the Divine Seat (*Deva-Sadana*). In the *Ṛgveda* it is stated that on the summit of the Tree of dense foliage God Yama sits in the company of Devas and drinks with them the immortal sap of life (*Yasmin Vṛikshe supalāśe devaiḥ sampibate yamaḥ*, RV. X. 135.1). This idea is made more specific in the case of the sacrificial *Yūpas* in which the top-most portion above the ring (*Chashāla*) is said to be sacred to the Gods. The *Yūpa* and *Stūpa* and the present banner sign on the unicorn seals appear to repeat the same elements of symbolism removed in time from one another. With this analysis in view the Indus Valley banner seems to be the earliest form of a pillar, *Skambha* dedicated to a deity. We are aware that the cult of the pillar as a banner was associated with Prajāpati, Indra and many other gods including the *Trayastriṃśa Devas* (cf. Skambha Sūkta, Atharva, 10. 7. 1 44).

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It appears that the deity of the Indus Valley Pillar was most probably Rudra. Several reasons may be adduced in its favour. Firstly, Rudra-Śiva as Yogī and Paśupati is already seen on the seals. Secondly, the worship of Rudra according to the Rudra Sūkta of Yajurveda prevailed in many parts of the country and in many forms (ये चैनं रुद्रा अभितो दिक्षु श्रिताः सहस्रशः VS. 16.6). Indeed all gods spirits, ghosts and demons were identified with Rudra-Śiva cult, from which he was called Mahādeva and Bhūtapati and even the worship of animal deities came under the cult of Rudra-Śiva as Paśupati. Thirdly, the Mother Goddess (*Ambikā*) worshipped in the Indus Valley was associated with Rudra as his Sister (एष ते रुद्र भागः सह स्वस्साम्बिकया, VS. 3.57). It shows that Rudra and Ambikā were pair deities with cults co-existing. In the fourth place the component parts of the pillar as depicted on the seals point to its affinity with Rudra.

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The first part is clearly a shaft, tapering from bottom to the top. In some examples this *Yashti* portion is tall and slender (as in Marshall, 103. 18) and in others heavy and stunted. On the top of the shaft is a transverse bar in several examples, (Marshall 102. c) similar to that of the traingle-headed standard on the Punch-marked coins, which feature points to its being rooted in the trident, or trinitarian Tryambaka symbolism. The abacus supports a half-round bowl-like object marked on some examples on the outside with circlets or pimples, or a bejewelled bowl (*Vasudhāna Uru-kośa*, AV. 11. 2. 11) having filaments rising from its mouth (Marshall, 104. 38, a specimen complete with the tapering shaft, transverse bar, circlets on the bowl each with a pellet in the centre, filaments and the top-most railing).

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VEDIKĀ—The object on the summit of this pillar is found on closer analysis to be a *Vedikā*, namely, a structure of upright posts and cross-bars, the number of rows of transverse bars varying as 1, 2, 3 or in one case even 5 (Marshal, 103,18). In some cases only upright posts without bars are shown. Its basic plan is two fold, viz. square, several times shown in isometric projection, open to the sky and at other times circular with a domed roof (Marshall 105. 52, 60, 106.73, and many other examples on plates 106, 107, 108, 109, 110). The circular cottage form (*Parnaśālā*) is clear in Marshall 103. 16, 104. 30. The *Harmikā* on the Stūpa was the abode of gods and the *Vedikā* on the Indus Valley Rudra-Siva pillar was the abode of Agni-Rudra as in the Yajñas. From the isometric or angular form it is clear that this *Vedikā* was exactly similar to the railed *Harmikā* of the Buddhist Stūpas. In some cases either a flame or smoke is shown rising from the open mouth of the *Vedikā*. It appears that originally this pillar was the ensign of God Rudra and later on with certain modifications it was adopted for Indra in the form of a Yūpa, the same as Indra-Yaṣṭi or Indradhvaja with changes due to the influence of the popular cult called *Indramaha*.

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Its true nature as the sacred banner of a deity is revealed by a scene depicted on Kulli ware even earlier than Mohenjo-daro: A Brahmani bull with wiesprad horns is standing before a pillar and fastened to it by a triple cord. The pillar consists of a shaft in its lower half portion, a bulbous pot above it having a circular ball-like object with twelve spokes in the middle, and on the summit a four-corned rectangular frame. These component parts have a very close parallel with the representations of the pillar on the Unicorn seals. (Stuart Piggot, *Pre-historic India*, fig. 7 facing p. 102). In another example illustrated in the same figure the humpped bull is secured to a *śūla* or spear. This has all the elements of a Śaiva pillar and on this analogy the pillar on the Unicorn seals of slightly later date appears to be but a Rudra-Siva *Stambha*. The *Dhvaja-stambha* of Buddhism and Jainism were in the same tradition and in fact Buddha himself in *Divyāvadāna* explains the Yūpa as a *Dharma chinha* reminding the rulers and the people of their duty (Cowell, p. 59).

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TYPES OF SEALS—The seals from the Indus Valley are of various types, viz. square with perforated boss above, square without boss, sometimes inscribed on both sides; rectangular seals with perforated convex back; rectangular without boss; button seals; cubical seals; round seals with perforated boss; rectangular seals with perforated boss on the back; cylinder seals; round seals without boss and inscribed on both sides. Cunningham published the first seal from Harappa in 1885, but the script on the seals has not been read so far. In Sumer and elsewhere cylinder seals are known of which only six specimens have been found in the Indus Valley.

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The Indus Valley seals were used for stamping the owner's name just like the later clay-seals from historic sites in which personal names with signs are engraved (*Nāma-mudrā*) and this is the class to which seals from the Indus Valley seem to have belonged.

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ANIMALS ON THE SEALS—The seals are engraved with figures of animals shown in profile with a line of pictograph above. An ox like animal with a single horn, is depicted on the majority of seals. In front of the beast is an object which was taken to be a bird-cage. As shown above this was the standard banner or pillar sacred to the cult of Rudra-Śiva. This standard does not occur outside the Indus civilisation. Other animals are the big Brahmani bull, a magnificent beast with hump and heavy dewlap, short-horned bull, buffalo, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, hare, antelope, eagle, crocodile, etc.

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The so-called unicorn may better be described as *Śṛṅga-Vṛisha*, i.e., an ox with horns. This seems to have been the sacred animal of Rudra-Śiva, Nandī of later tradition and up to now the bull is the symbol *par excellence* of Śiva. Another animal depicted on the seals shows the composite form of ox and antelope. Both are associated with Śiva-Rudra, described as a hunter (*Mṛiga-Vyādha*) holding a deer in his hand. There is a curious marking on the shoulder found only on this animal. Similarly the standard or pillar planted in front does not appear with any other animal except the unicorn.

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(ii) Short-horned Bull. Next in popularity is the short-horned bull depicted commonly on seals and pottery. Its frowning head is lowered as if the angry animal is about to charge. In every case there is a manger before him on a low flat base. This shape is also exlusive to the Indus Valley. Sir Woolley found a square seal at Ur with the same device but with a cuneiform epigraph.

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(iii) Buffalo. This animal is rare, depicted in a natural pose with nose up sniffing in the air.

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(iv) *Brāhmaṇī* Bull. The animal has a prominent hump and shoulder and is the famous Indian bull of the Punjab. There is a feeling of great strength in the modelled muscles plastered on the body. It is a magnificent representation and not found any where else outside India. The portraiture of this animal of monumental quality shows the art of seal-making in its perfect form.

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(v) Rhinoceros. It is the great Indian rhinoceros at one time roaming in the forests all along the base of the Himalayas as far as Peshawar where Babar hunted it. It was a free animal in the forests of Sind. It is rendered with extreme fidelity with folds and wrinkles. Clay figurines of this animal used as toys have also been found.

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The tiger with its characteristic stripes, elephant with its long trunk, antelope with long curving horns and the common crocodile of Indian rivers are also depicted. On one seal we find the *Pipal* tree with its spreading branches and leaves.

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MYTHOLOGICAL CREATURES - On one seal we see a human figure with hoofs, horns and tail of a bison, struggling with a fabulons beast, the greater part of which is tiger-like. On seals and other objects from Sumer *Enkidu* is always shown struggling with a lion and his companion *Gilgamesh* with a bull. It is possible that at Mohenjo-daro the figure of *Enkidu* is represented in an Indian context where tiger is substituted for lion. On another seal is a composite animal, which appears to be a ram with the horns of a bull, a human face and the trunk and tusks of an elephant. There are long locks of wool on its fore-quaters but the hind quaters and hind legs are those of a tiger. The three-headed beast on another seal appears to be composite of three animals, head and horns of an antelope and body of a unicorn, the head being joined to the body very carefully. On one broken seal the heads and the necks of six animals radiate outward from a ring-like motif, the heads being those of a unicorn, a short-horned bull, an antelope, a tiger and probably a rhinoceros and an elephant (Marshall, seal No. 383).

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The design on another seal is most complex, showing three tigers with their bodies crossing one another (Marshall, seal No. 386). [Fig. 23].

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The representation of plant forms on the seals is rare. On a seal (*ibid*, 387) is the *Pipal* tree or *Aśvattha*, being the Indian Tree of Cosmos. Lion is not represented on any seal in the Indus Valley, but appears repeatedly on the archaic seals from Elam, Sumer, Kish and Babylon. Antelope is rare in the Indus Valley but frequent on the seals of Elam and Sumer.

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Seal impressions also have been found, e. g. 5 on jars, 30 on tablets of which 12 are in faience and the rest in clay.

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Some seal impressions on triangular prisms are interesting as nothing at all similar to them has been found in Babylonia or Elam. It is also interesting to find that on some seals a file of animals (*Paśu-paṅkti*) is moving showing the unicorn, rhinoceros, crocodile, short-horned bull, elephant and tiger. This motif was very common on the older seals of Mesopotamia and Sūsā, but there the animals marching in row are lions and antelopes. The list includes three of the Four Great Animals on the Aśokan lion-capital.

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COPPER TABLETS—These are flat pieces of copper either rectangular (1.2" × ·5" to 1·5" × ·1"), or square (·92" × ·92"), the latter being rarer. They are incised with inscriptions and figures of animals or men. The majority of tablets are well made. They were first cast and then hammered smooth. In some cases they were trimmed remarkably true with smooth faces, sides and ends. In rare instances the ends are slightly rounded. In other cases they are rough and jagged at one end, which suggests that they were snapped off from a longer strip. All the above features hold good in the fabric of earlier Punch-marked coins also, and it is likely that these copper tablets were to be used as coins. Marshall was not certain about their purpose and suggested that they were amulets. But the numismatic purpose is much more probable, firstly because they were trimmed so carefully after casting and hammering, and secondly because the animals represented are mostly those occurring in groups or singly as symbols on Punch-marked coins.

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CHRONOLOGY OF THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION—In the foregoing pages we have been discussing similarities between the institutions and arts and crafts of the Indus Valley and of later times. The fact remains that the Indus Valley culture in all its aspects was an original creation on the Indian soil, having wide distribution in place and time, viz. about 1500 miles and c. 1500 years 3000 B.C. 1500 B. C. No doubt remains that it preceded by many centuries the historic cultures of India.

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There are two main problems about its Chronology, viz. its syncronism with the ancient cultures flourishing towards the west and its relationship with the Aryan culture of India. Fortunately, the first argument has found a firm solution in archaeology, viz. the discovery of Indus Valley seals in Mesopotamian sites and vice verse and also of some special articles from the west found in the Indus Valley. A total of about 30 Indus seals was found in the protohistoric cities of Mesopotamia and other places. C. J. Godd discussed 16 seals of the Indus style from Ur and two others from Babylonia as well as 8 earlier specimens from Kish, Susa, Lagash, Umma and Tell Asmar and two from unknown sites. To this may be added a second seal from Tell Asmar and another from Tepe Gawra near Mosul and another seal from farther west in Syria. Wheeler made a critical study of the context in which these seals were found and has recorded a list of twelve seals for which some sort of dating can be postulated : one may be pre-Sargonid (an Indian Bull with lowered head, before 2350 B. C.) ; seven of the Sargonid period (2350 B.C.–2000 B.C.) ; and four of the Larsa period (c. 1800 B.C.) and later ((possibly Kassite, about 1500 B.C.). This indicates that during the period 2500 B. C.–1500 B. C. the Indus civilisation can be dated on the basis of its contacts with Mesopotamia. Other classes of objects also furnish evidence of co-existence viz. etched carnelian beads, bone-inlays of kidney-shape, pottery bearing knobs found at Tell Asmar; a small casket of greenish grey stone (chlorite schist) with a matted pattern on it found at Mohenjo-daro and at Ur, Kish, Lagash and Susa.

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With the determination of this focus of chronology from the West, it is relevant to examine the bearings of the Indus Valley institutions with those of the Vedic age. Although the script has not been read, there are many similarities as pointed out in the previous pages between the life in the Indus Valley and that depicted in Vedic literature. This is a subject too wide to be discussed in the limited space here, but the conclusion is forced that the Aryans did not appear all of a sudden to collide with and uproot the Harappans, but that for some centuries, may be even a millenium, the two peoples co-existed, being inter-locked in cultural and religious exchanges, resulting in a free mutual give and take. The entangled strands of this skein await to be unravelled. But indications are available that the Aryans have preserved in the Vedic literature much of what existed in the Indus Valley both in material and religious fields until the final clash came in the form of two major battles, one at Hariyūpiyā (most probably Harappa) on the Paruṣṇī (Ravi) and the second westward in the valley of the river Yavyāvatī (modern Zhob) in North Baluchistan (RV. VI. 27. 5-6). The mutual exchanges and borrowings between the two peoples whom we may tentatively identify as the Asuras and the Devas, could not be effaced, but continued in volume amongst the peoples of subsequent generations. This continuity or transmission of both institutions and material life from the Indus Valley to the Vedic Age and historical times appears to be the most outstanding fact in the evolution of human civilisation on the Indian soil. The predominant motif is ‘Synthesis’ which has been operative through the ages in India’s history. The author of the Atharva Veda speaks of the Motherland as being peopled by many races (*Bahudhā jana*), speaking different languages (*Vivācasaḥ*) and following different religions (*Nānā-dharma* A.V. XII. 1.). The Indus Valley culture, therefore, is not an exotic or disturbing factor but a basic yarn in the varied texture of Indian culture through the ages.

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