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Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c9.s1: Jaina Āgama Evidence

Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c9.s1

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Jaina Āgama Evidence

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The Jaina Āgamika literature being of the same age, the picture of art and architecture presented by it is similar to that of the Pāli literature. The wooden construction was known as *Kaṭṭha-kamma*. An important reference is to a wooden figure of a Ṛishi made for worship by his son. Similarly images of stucco (*pottha*), and ivory (*danta*) are also mentioned.

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The most illustrative example of palace architecture occurs in the Rāyapaseniya Sutta in an account of the *Vimāna* of Sūryābha Deva. It was surrounded by a rampart (*Pāgāra*), embellished with merlons (*Kavisīsaga*, Skt. *Kapiśīrshaka*), gates in every direction (*Dvāra*), furnished with *Stūpikās* on the ridge of the roof (*Thūbhiyā*). The whole building was decorated with many kinds of figures and motifs (*Bhatti-chitta*), e g. *Īhāmiga* (faboulous animals), bulls (*Usabha*), horse (*Turaga*) Yaksha or Atlantes figures (*Nara*), crocodile (*Magara*), birds (*Vihaga*), serpents or dragons (*Valaga*), Kinnara (Centaurs), deer (*Ruru*), *Sarabha* (lion-like figures), Yak (*Chamara*) elephant (*Kuñjara*), wild creepers (*Vanalaya*) and lotus-creepers (*Paumalaya*). The capitals of the pillars were decorated with figures of pairs of Vidyādharas (*Vidyādhara-jamala*), horses (*Haya-saṅghāḍa*), elephants (*Gaya-saṅghāḍa*) and similar numerous decorative figures (*रूपकसहस्सकलित*). The doors were provided with landing (*Nimma*), pedestals (*Pāiṭṭhāna*), pillars (*Khambha*), floor (*Kuṭṭima*), threshold *Eluyā* = देहली), bolts (*Inda-kīla*), lintels (*Uttaraṅga*), door-posts (*Chheḍā* = द्वारशाखा), small door-planks (*Sūchī*), joints or bonds (*Sandhi*), sockets (*Samuggaya* = सुचिकागृह), wooden traverse bars behind door-leaves (*Aggalā*), sockets for door-pins (*Aggalāpāsāya*), hinges (*Avaṭṭaṇa-peḍhiyā*). For city-gates large heavy doors fitting closely were provided, which were generally closed at night (*Nirantariya-ghaṇa-kavāḍa*), very often having a small door (*Aṇi-dvāra*, or *Uttara-pāsaga*). On their side-walls (*Bhitti*) the doors were fitted with bosses (*Bhitti-guliyā*) for pendant bed steads (*Go-māṇasiya* = गोमानस्य: शय्या:). Graceful figures of *Śāla-bhañjikā* women (लीलद्विसालभंजिय) and figures of fabulous animals (*Vyāla-rūpaka*) were carved on the doors.

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The number of railing women would be 32 on each side or 108 in all. There are some other interesting architectural terms, e.g *Kuḍḍa* (walls of *Gavākṣa* patterns), large posts (*Vaṃsaga*), transverse beams (*Paḍivaṃsaga*), upright smaller posts fixed in the ground (*Bhomā*), elevation (*Usseha*), tops (*Ulloya*), lattices (*jāla-pañjara*), side-walls (*Pakkhā*), bamboos for side walls (*Pakkhha-bāhā*), cross-beams (*Vaṃśa*), ribbings (*Vaṃśa-kavvilliya*), panels (*Paṭṭiyā*), screen walls (*Ohāḍaṇi*), and thatched layers above the ribbings (*Uvari-puchchaṇā*), ceiling (*Achchhāyaṇa*), peaks (*Kūṭa*), and finials (*Thūbhiyā*) (*Rāyapaseniya* sutta 97, see J. C. Jain, *Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canon*, p. 181).

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We also find the description of a big theatre hall (*Pekkhā-ghara-maṇḍava*, Skt. *Prekṣā-gṛha maṇḍapa*) which was supported on many columns (*Aneka-stambha-śata sanniviṣṭa*), and was furnished with a terraced railing (*Vedikā*), gateways with architrave (*Toraṇa*) and *Śālabhañjikā* figures. It was decorated with many other motifs (*Jhāmṛiga* etc.) and ornamental figures (*Ruvaga-sahasra-kalita*). In the centre of the Theatre Hall was a stage (*Akhkhhāḍaga*).

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In the *Nāyādhamma Kahā* is a description of the sleeping chamber of a queen which had an outer courtyard, an Assembly Hall polished (*Ghaṭṭa-maṭṭha*) and well set with pillars, endowed with statues (*Śāla-bhañjiyā*), latticed windows, moon-stone at the foot of the stairways (*Ardha-chandra*), projecting ledges (*Nijjuha*), and a room on the roof called *Chanda-sālikā*. Its inside was decorated with paintings (*Chitta-kamma*); the floor (*Kuṭṭima-tala*) was studded with semi-precious stones (*maṇi*) and the ceiling had a painted canopy (*ulloyachittiya*) with lotus flowers and creepers (*Paumalayā*). There is reference also to a Summer-House (*Siyahara*) built for a Chakravartī king, which name occurs in the *Niśītha-chūrṇi* and therefore must be of later times corresponding to the *Hima-gṛha* in the *Kādambarī* (para 208 of P. L. Vaidya’s edition), of which the architectural layout had already been perfected in the Kushāṇa period.

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Thus both palace and town architecture and other allied arts and crafts were developed in the Janapada age. Their actual remains are few because of the frail or perishable nature of the material used, but a prior tradition of *Śilpas* was established, e.g. architecture, town-planning, royal palaces, residential buildings, roads, assembly halls (Saṁthāgāra), charity halls (Dāna-śālā), gateways (Gopura), towers (Aṭṭālaka), moats (Parikhā), draw-bridges (Saṅkrama), wood carving (Kāṣṭha-karma), metal casting, stone-carving, making of wooden pillars, posts and rafters (Sthūṇā), capitals and basements (Kumbhaka), latticed windows (Vātapāna and Gavākṣa), heavy doors (Maha-kavāṭa), clay-figurines, fired bricks, ivory carving, goldsmith's work, plastering, polishing (Ghaṭṭa-Maṭṭha prabhā) in order to produce three kinds of bright effect, viz. Saprabha, Samaricha and Sodyota (Jīvābhigama). The commentators explain Ghaṭṭa as preliminary rubbing with rough stone and Maṭṭha with fine abrasive powder in which finished smoothness was produced. Prabhā is explained as lustre which is in the object, Marīchi as the radiant polish reflecting a net-work of rays, and Udyota as the highest lusture which being reflected from the surface casts a glow on the objects around. The existence of terms to indicate the bright metallic polish that we have on the Northern Black Polished Ware and on the Mauryan polished monuments shows that the technique of producing was a well known art. The polish on the Northern Grey Ware which belongs to the Janapada period and also some traces of it on the stone Yaksha statue from Parkham at Mathura takes the art to the pre-Maurya period and possibly earlier. The realistic description of the walls and ceiling of the Assembly Hall of the palace in the Mahā-Ummaga city is a pointer in the same direction.

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The art of painting also had been developed and a number of motifs illustrating scenes from heavenly life and mythical beliefs are actually mentioned both in Buddhist and Jaina literature. Indeed the rich repertoire of the carved figures on railing pillars, panels and cross-bars as listed in Jaina texts are almost the same as we find on the stone railings and gateways of Bharhut and Sāñchī, pointing to pre-existing wooden prototypes.

Linked texts (7)