The Development of Hindu Iconography c7: Contents

The Development of Hindu Iconography c7

Language: English

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Iconography, the nature of the subject, 1-2; its intimate association with religion. 2-4; both rivalry and good feeling between different sects emphasised by the study of this subject, 5-6. Its study, an aid for the study of the art history of India, 6-7;—also an aid for that of political or general history of India, 7. Materials for the study of iconography: (a) monumental, and archaeological, 7-11; (b) literary: of a general character, 11-2;—of a technical character, consisting of iconographic and iconometric texts, 12-23 (texts attributed to mythical Ṛṣis and Devas, 13-4; Mānasāra account of the origin of the different kinds of artists, 14-16; Vāstuśāstra and its 18 expounders, 14, 16; Bṛhatsaṃhitā and Nagnajit, 16-7; such other works and anthologies 17-9; their original sources, 19-21; similar texts in astronomical works and Nītiśāstras, 21-2; anthologies, 22-3); dhyāna- and praṇāma-mantras of divinities, aids to iconographic studies, 23-5. Mode of determining dates of iconographic texts, 25-9; universal or regional character of the texts, 29-32. Correlation between the texts and extant images, 32. Comparative paucity of ancient Brahmanical images, reasons for it, 32-3. Uncommon names of images given in their pedestal-inscriptions, 34-5.

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| CHAPTER II : The Antiquity of Image-Worship in India ... | 36-70 |

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The term 'icon' ('image')—its significance, 36-7; secular images, 37-8; terms indicative of symbols ' in early texts, 39; Pāṇini on worship of images; 39-40. Cult-objects found in the early Indus Valley sites, 41-2; the pre-Vedic settlers there probably worshippers of images, 42. Did the Vedic Indians worship images?—the question differently answered by different groups of Vedic scholars, 42 fff.: views of Max Müller, Wilson and Macdonell, 42-3; those of Bollensen and Venkateswara—passages quoted by them from the Ṛgveda in support of their views that the Vedic Indians did not worship images, 43-7. Nature of the religion in vogue among the higher section of the early Indo-Aryans, 47-8; the degree of anthropomorphism assigned to the Vedic deities not conducive to image-worship, 48-50. Description of the Vedic gods helped to formulate the concrete concepts of many of the cult-gods of later times, 51-2; critical study of the Vedic passages quoted by Bollensen and Venkateswara in support of their views, 52-6; views of Bloomfield, R. P. Chanda, Macdonell and others, 57-8; true explanation of the Ṛgveda verse, IV. 24, 10, and VIII. 1, 5 about some sensible representations of Indra, 58-60; the nature of the symbols used in some sacrifices, 60-1; certain Ṛgvedic passages indicative of the existence of image-worship among the earlier settlers of India: Significance of the terms ' Śiśnadeva ' and ' Muradeva ', 62-5; gradual changes introduced in the Vedic religion, 66-8; the latest sections of the Vedic literature, the Khilas (supplements) to the earlier authoritative Brāhmaṇas and Āraṇyakas, and the Gṛhyasūtras, presuppose the partial recognition of the practice of image-worship by the higher section of the Indo-Aryans, 68-70.

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CHAPTER III: The Origin and Development of Image-Worship in India ... ... 71-107

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Close cultural contact between the Indo-Aryans and the previous settlers of India responsible for the introduction of changes in the socio-religious outlook of the former, 71-2; emergence of Bhakti, 72-5; growth of cult-religions, cults not centering round Vedic deities, 75-6;—but centering round hero-gods and mythological deities of a different character (evidence of the Niddeśa passage), 76-7; images necessary for the ritualistic worship of the followers of the cults, 78-9; *dhyāna-yoga* as described in the *Mahābhārata* and a few late *Upaniṣads*, 79; the Pāñcarātra viewpoint about the divine images, 80-1; the symbolism behind the images, 81-2; aniconic forms of cult-deities, 82-4; trees also used as divine symbols, 84. Prevalence of image-worship in the post-Vedic age supported by various types of literary data: Pāṇini's *Sūtras*—as commented on by Patañjali, 85-6; *Arthaśāstra* and *Manu-saṃhitā* passages, 86-8; Nārada Pañcarātra extract, 88; *Mahābhārata* passages, 88; Quintus Curtius's evidence, 89. Archaeological data in support of the wide prevalence of the practice: Aśoka's Fourth Rock Edict, 90; Nāgari inscription, 90-2; Besnagar inscriptions, 92-93; Mora (Mathura) well inscription, 93-4; other Mathura inscriptions, 94-5. Some pre-Christian cult-images: Lohanipur (Patna) Jina image, 96; Patna gold plaque of Hara-Pārvatī (suspect), 96; animal figures in the capitals of Aśoka pillars, deities in their theriomorphic forms (?), 96-7; Maurya or Śuṅga free-standing sculptures—not royal statues, but Yakṣa images, 97; Maṇibhadra Yakṣa image found at Pawaya, 97-8; other Yakṣa and Yakṣiṇī figures from Northern India, 98-100; Yakṣas, Yakṣiṇīs and Devatās in Bharhut rail-pillars, 100; Nāga figures in the Mathura Museum, 100-01. Significance of the literary and archaeological data collected above, 101-03. Dhvajas or votive columns,—practice of erecting them in honour of various cult-deities: *Garuḍadhvaja*, 103-04; *Tāla-dhvaja* and *Makaradhvaja*, 104; the Besnagar banyan capital, not *Kalpa-vṛkṣa* as suggested by Cunningham, but it is associated with Śrī-Lakṣmī, the presiding deity of *Padminī-vidyā*, 104-05; the Lala Bhagat sculptures (a red sandstone cock capital and a section of a pillar), their true significance, 105-07.

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CHAPTER IV : Brahmanical Divinities and their Emblems on Early Indian Coins ... 108-57

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Aniconism of a large section of the Indians suggested by the earliest coins of the country, 108-110. Iconism on ancient Indian coins: Gaja-Lakṣmī on coins, 110-12; Buddha on Indian coins, 112; Śiva in his theriomorphic form, 112-13; Śiva in his phallic form on the indigenous coins of India, 113-14; other emblems of Śiva on the indigenous and foreign coins of India, 114-17. Śiva in human form: on Ujjayinī coins, 117;—on those of the Audumbara chief Dharaghoṣa, 117-18;—on Kuniṇḍa coins, 118;—on some coins of Gondophares, 118-19;—on some square copper coins of Maues, as well as on a seal of Śivarakṣita, 120-21; probable appearance of Śiva on the Sirkap seal of Viśvāmitra, 121. Iconography of Śiva on Kuṣāṇ money: on Wema Kadphises's coins, 121-22;—on the coins of Kaniṣka and Huviṣka, 122-23; composite (? Haryardha) form of Śiva on a coin of Huviṣka, 123-24; composite form of Mihira, Śiva and Viṣṇu on the nicolo seal of a Hephtalite Huṇa chief, 124-25; Śiva as ‘Gaṇeśa’ on a copper coin of Huviṣka, 125; Śiva's consort Umā on Huviṣka's coins, 126-27; Śiva on Vāsudeva's coins, 127-28; probable reference to a Śaiva shrine in an early Kharoṣṭhī inscription, 128-29. Vāsudeva-Viṣṇu on a coin of the Pañcāla Mitra chief Viṣṇumitra, 129-30; Viṣṇu on a coin of Huviṣka—doubtful, 130-31. Some Vaiṣṇava emblems on early indigenous coins: Fan-palm capitals on some Taxila and other coins, 131; Sudarśanacakra on the coins of the Vṛṣṇi Rājanya gaṇa, 131;—on the coins of Virayaśas, the Kauluta chief, and on those of Acyuta, 132.

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Goddesses on early Indian coins: Bhadrā, probably same as Lakṣmī or Durgā, on coins of the Pañcāla Mitra chief Bhadraghoṣa, 133; Lakṣmī in her human, as well as animal, form on the coins of the Kuniṇḍas, 134; Durgā-Siṃhavāhinī on some coins of Azes, 134-35;—on some gold coins of the Guptas, 135-36; the sidereal goddess Phalgunī on the coins of the Pañcāla Mitra chief Phalgunimitra, doubtful, 137.

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Symbols of Sūrya on coins:—on punch-marked coins and on some coins of Eran, 137-38;—on some copper coins of Kāḍa, 138;—on the money of Sūryamitra and Bhānumitra in the Pañcāla Mitra series, 139. Sūrya in human form: As Helios, Mihira, etc. on the coins of some early foreign rulers of India, the prototypes of some variety of the Indian Sūrya images, —Helios-Mithra on some coins of Plato, 139-40; Sun god on a coin of Philoxenus, 140; Helios-Mihira on the coins of Kanishka and Huvishka, 140.

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Skanda-Kārttikeya on coins: An emblem of this god on some Ayodhyā coins, 141; Brahmanya-deva (Subrahmanya, another name of Kārttikeya) on the coins of the Yaudheyas, 141-44; the Yaudheyas and others dedicating their states to the god, 142; evidence of the Mahābhārata and the Mahāmāyūrī about the country or the capital of the Yaudheyas, 143; figures of Skanda-Kumāra, Viśākha and Mahāsena on some coins of Huvishka, 144-46.

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Indra and Agni on coins: Indra on the coins of the Pañcāla Mitra chief, Indramitra, 146; Agni on those of Agnimitra, the Pañcāla Mitra chief, 146-47; Zeus-Indra on some Indo-Greek coins, 148-50.

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Yakṣas and Yakṣiṇīs on coins, 150-51.

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Resume of the foregoing survey of the early Indian coin-devices, 151-55.

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Character of the art manifest in the treatment of the coin-figures, 155-57.

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CHAPTER V : Deities and their Emblems on Early Indian Seals ... ... ... 158-202

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Nature of evidence supplied by the ancient Indian seals about iconism, 158.

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The Indus Valley sealings: Mohenjo-daro seals with the figure of proto-Śiva, 159-60; a god in a Yoga posture on two Mohenjo-daro seals, 160-61; composite figures of cult-objects on seals, 161-63; mythological scenes illustrated on them, 163-66; Mother-goddess on the seals, 166-68. Ring-stones and phalli found in Indus Valley sites, 168-70.

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Ring-stones and stone discs: found at Taxila, Kosam and Rajghat, 170-72;—found at Murtaziganj (Patna), 172-73.

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Tree-worship by the early Indus Valley people, 173-75; general observations on the nature of their religious beliefs and practices, 175-77.

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Terracotta seals found at Basarh, Bhita, Rajghat and Nalanda, 177-78.

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Śiva and his emblems on Gupta seals:—at Basarh, 179-82;—at Bhita, 182-85.

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Goddess figures on the Nalanda seals of the late Gupta and early mediaeval period, 185-87. Gaṇeśa, Śiva and other deities on the Nalanda seals, 187-88.

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Saiva and other emblems on Gupta and pre-Gupta seals found at Rajghat, 188-89.

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Viṣṇu and his emblems on seals—found at Basarh, 189-92;—at Bhita, 192-93;—at Rajghat, 193.

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Lakṣmī on Basarh seals, 193-96;—on Bhita seals, 196-97.

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Sarasvatī and Durgā on Bhita seals, 197.

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Goddess figures on Rajghat seals, 198.

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Sūrya and fire-altar on a Basarh seal, 198-99;—on a Bhita seal, 199.

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Skanda and Dhanada on Bhita, Rajghat and Basarh sealings, 199-201.

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Resume, 201-02.

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CHAPTER VI : Icono-plastic Art in India—Factors contributing to its Development ... 203-45

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Comparative paucity of extant images of the pre-Christian and early post-Christian periods, explained by the ancient practice of using perishable materials like wood, clay, etc. in image-making, 203-04; Chapter 58 (Vanasampraveśādhyāya) of the Bṛhat-saṃhitā on the use of wood for this purpose, 204-06; evidence of such texts as the Bhaviṣya-, Viṣṇudharmottara-, and Matsya-Purāṇas, and other texts on the same topic, 206-08; classifications of images, on the basis of materials (seven different kinds) out of which they were made, in texts like the Matsya-purāṇa, Hayaśīrṣa Pañcarātra, Śukranītisāra, Samarāṅgaṇa-Sūtradhara and others, 208-11; stone, though used for this purpose from an early date, much less frequent in use than wood and clay, 211-12.

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Metal images, and textual description of metal-casters' art, 212-17; textual details about selection of stone for making images, 217-20; pictorial representations of divinities, 220-22; Dhūlicitra, 222-23.

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Ratnajā class of images, 223-25; terracotta images, another variety of the pākajā type, 225-27; images made of kaḍi-śarkarā (a compound material) and danta (ivory), 227-28.

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Factors contributing to the development of iconoplastic art in India: (1) wide prevalence of sectarianism in India, 229-33; (2) phenomenal increase in the number of divinities comprising the Brahmanical pantheon, 233-36; (3) contact of India with the foreigners, especially with the Greeks, 236-39; (4) the evolution of Tantras and the gradual canonisation of the modes for icon-making, 239-43; (5) the systematic patronage of the art by the ruling powers and influential clericals, 243-45.

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CHAPTER VII : Iconographic Terminology ... 246-306

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Technical terms in the study of Indian Iconography: Various handposes—hastas and mudrās, 246-48; different types of mudrās: Vaidic, 248-49;—Tāntric, 250-51; the appearance of some of the latter in the Indus Valley objects, 251-52;—in some sculptures of the pre-Christian period, 252-56; some hastas and their early representations, 256-62; bhūmisparśa- and dharmacakra-mudrās in early Buddhist art, 262-63 (the ideology behind the latter, 256); some complex handposes adopted by ritualists, their significance, 263-64.

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Three principal attitudes in which Viṣṇu images are shown: sthānaka, āsana and śayana, the first two being common in the images of other gods, 264; four varieties of the sthānaka (standing) attitude, 264-66; ālīḍha and pratyālīḍha poses, 266-67; the Viṣṇudharmottara characterisation of the sthānas, 267-69. Āsanas (sitting postures), varieties mentioned in texts, representations in art, 269-73; asana in the sense of a pedestal: pīṭha, varieties of it, 273-74. Śayanamūrtis, ideology behind the Anantaśayanamūrti of Viṣṇu, 274-77.

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Nṛtyamūrtis, 277, textual account of various types of handposes, and different dance modes, 278-81. Flying pose and the Vidyādharas, 281-83; representation of clouds in early and mediaeval art of India, 283-84.

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Ornaments in the Hindu images: various types of head-gear, 284-88; varieties of ear-ornaments, 288-89; neck-ornaments, yajñopavīta, channavīra etc., 289-93. Drapery of the Hindu icons, 293-95.

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Other characteristic traits of the images: Śiraścakra and prabhāvalī, 296-98; pīṭha or pedestals, 298-99.

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Various kinds of objects in the hands of different images, 299-304; ideology underlying the custom of placing them in the hands of the divinities, 305-06.

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CHAPTER VIII : Canons of Iconometry ... 307-34

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Rules of proportions in the making of images: their usefulness, 307-08;—not peculiar to the Indian artists alone, but adopted by many ancient nations, 308-10. Anthropomorphism in Indian images, 310-11; aṣṭatāla and navatāla images, 311-12. Significance of some technical terms connected with the measurements of images, 313-15. Aṅgula and tāla as characterised by different texts, 315-25; tāla not mentioned in the Bṛhatsaṃhitā or in its commentary by Utpala, 325-26; Hadaway's explanation of tāla, 327; reference to Drāviḍa māna by Nagnajit, 327; measurement of the length of the 'image-face' as referred to in various texts, 327-29.

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Comparison between the Indian canons of proportion and those used by the Egyptians and the Greeks, 329-31; rules of proportion followed by western artists in the representation of human figures, 331-32.

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Comparison between the ideal theory and the actual practice, 332-33; observations of Smith and Hadaway, 333-34.

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CHAPTER IX : Cult Icons—Vyantara Devatas ... 335-84

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Changes introduced in the religious outlook of the Indians by the element of Bhakti rise to importance of a class of deities described in some texts as Vyantara Devatās, 335-3. Yakṣas in early Indian literature, 337-38; Yakṣa shrines in Buddhist, Jaina, epic and Purāṇic texts, 338; textual descriptions of Yakṣa images, 338-40; some early Yakṣa images, 340-41; Yakṣa Candramukha at Amaravati, 341-42; Yakṣas, named and unnamed, at Bharhut, 342-44.

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Nāgas and Nāginīs in early Indian literature, 344-47; textual descriptions of the Nāga and Nāginī types of images, 347-48; Elāpatra and Cakravāka Nāgarājas at Bharhut, 348; Nāga images from the Mathura region, 349; Nāga and Nāginī figures of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, as accessories to the higher cult-deities, 349, or, as principal deities, 350.

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Gandharvas, Kinnaras and Apsarasas in literature, 351-52; their iconographic types in Indian art, 352-54.

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Gaṇapati, an iconic type derived from the Yakṣa and Nāga types, the cult of the Gāṇapatyas, 354-57; textual descriptions of different types of Gaṇapati images, 357-58; some early and mediaeval images of Gaṇapati, 359-61.

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Kārttikeya and his various aspects in early Indian literature, 362-63; epigraphic references to his worship, 363-64; textual descriptions of Skanda-Kārttikeya images, 364-65; some Gupta and post-Gupta images of Kārttikeya, 365-67.

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Kabandhas and Kumbhāṇḍas in literature and art, 368. Iconographic types of Devatās and Yakṣiṇīs, 368-70.

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Śrī-Lakṣmī in literature, 370-72; textual descriptions of the various types of Lakṣmī images, 373-74; representation of Śrī-Lakṣmī in early and mediaeval art of India, 374-76.

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Sarasvatī in mythological and iconographic texts, 376-77; proto-Sarasvatī at Bharhut and Khiching, 377-78; some early and mediaeval Sarasvatī reliefs, 378-80.

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Worship and iconography of some folk goddesses of ancient and mediaeval India,—Jarā, Hārītī, Jyeṣṭhā and others, 380-84.

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CHAPTER X : Cult Icons—Visnu and Surya ... 385-444

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VISNU

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Āditya Viṣṇu in Vedic texts, 385-86; Purāṇic Viṣṇu, a composite god, 386; Vāsudeva and his five-fold forms, 386-87; the Pāñcarātra ideology, the Vyūha tenet, 387-88;—the Vibhava doctrine, 388-89; different lists of Avatārās in different texts, 390-93.

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The Pāñcarātrins' part in the spread of the practice of image-worship, 394-95; sectarian exclusiveness in later Vaiṣṇavism, 395-96.

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The Bṛhatsaṃhitā description of a Viṣṇu image, 396; The Vaikhānasāgama characterisation of the Dhruvaberas of Viṣṇu, 396-98. An Abhicārikasthānakamūrti of Viṣṇu from Bengal, 399. Some sthānakamūrtis of Viṣṇu, 400-04; some varieties of the Āsanamūrtis of the god, 404-06; varieties of Śayanamūrtis of Viṣṇu, 406-07.

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Viṣṇu Caturmūrti (Caturvyūha), a concept peculiar to the Pāñcarātrins illustrated by some four-faced Viṣṇu images of parts of Northern India, mostly Kashmir,—the ideology behind them explained in the Viṣṇudharmottara, 408-10. Caturviṃśatimūrtis of Viṣṇu, the mode of distinguishing one from the other, 410-12.

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Images illustrating some of the ten incarnations of Viṣṇu: Matsya, Kūrma, Varāha, 412-15; Narasimha, 415-17; Vāmana, 417-19; three Rāmas, Bhārgava Rāma (Paraśurāma), Rāghava Rāma (Rāma Dāśarathi) and Balarāma, 419-24; Buddha, 424-25; Kalkin, 425.

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Viśvarūpa, Karivarada and Māndhātā incarnations of Viṣṇu, 426-27.

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SURYA

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Sūrya and his various aspects in the Vedic texts, 428-30. Worship of the Sun-god in the post-Vedic age, 430. Reorientated sun-cult of Northern India in the early centuries of the Christian era and afterwards, 430-32.

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Aniconic representation of Sūrya in coins of the pre-Christian period, 432; some early reliefs of the god from the Western, Northern and Eastern parts of India, 432-33. Some Sūrya figures from Gandhāra and Mathura, 433-35. A few Sūrya images from Bengal, their principal traits, 435-36.

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Textual descriptions of the Sūrya image, 436-38. The prototype of the north Indian sun icon, 438.

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Two categories of mediaeval Sūrya reliefs of Eastern India, 439-40. Images of Sūrya from other parts of India, 440-41.

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Dvādaśādityas, 441. Revanta, the son of Sūrya, the Ghatnagar Revanta relief, 442-43. Navagrahas, 443-44; Kankandighi Navagraha relief, 444-45; Navagraha Cakra from Khiching, 445.

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CHAPTER XI : Cult Icons—Siva and Sakti ... 446-509

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SIVA

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Siva's acts and aspects, 446-47; his Vedic counterpart—Rudra, 447; śiva (‘auspicious’) not used at first as the proper name of a god, 447; the word used as such in later Vedic literature, 447-48; Rudra as a Supreme god and his eight names, 448.

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Emergence of the cult of Rudra-Siva,—evidence of Pāṇini and Patañjali, 448-49;—of the annalists of Alexander's invasion and of the Mahāmāyūrī, 449-50. The Śiva-bhāgavatas, the same as Pāśupatas, Lakulīśa—the systematiser of the Pāśupata school, 450-51; Śaiva Schools of the ghora form, 451-52.

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Moderate schools of Śaivism: Āgamānta Śaivas, 452-53; Kāshmir Śaivism, 453-54; Tamil Śivabhaktas and the Vīraśaivas, 454.

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Sivalinga—its real nature, 454-56; Gudimallam and other realistic Sivalingas, 456-57; classification of conventionalised Sivalingas, 458; Mānuṣa liṅgas and its different varieties, 459-60; Mukhaliṅgas, 460-61. Liṅgodbhavamūrti of Śiva, 462-63.

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Siva in his human forms: classification under two broad heads, ugra and saumya,—different varieties included in each, 464-66.

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‘Non-mythological’ groups of Śaiva images:—of a peaceful character, 466-70: Dakṣiṇāmūrtis of Śiva, 470-72; Nṛtyamūrtis of Śiva, 472-75. The so-called ‘Trimūrti of Elephanta, its real character, 476-77.

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Śaiva images illustrating tenets of the Āgamānta or Śuddha-Śaiva School, 478-80. Images of Lakulīśa, 480-81.

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‘Non-mythological’ groups of Śaiva images: of the ugra, variety, 481-84.

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Śaiva images illustrating stories: of a peaceful character,—Anugrahamūrtis of Śiva, 484-85; Kalyāṇasundara- or Vaivāhika-mūrtis, 485-86.

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Śaiva images illustrating the stories associated with his specific acts of destruction: Gajāsurasaṃhāramūrti, 486-87; Tripurāntaka- and Kālāri-mūrtis, 487-88; Kāmadahana- and Sarabheśa-mūrtis, 488.

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SAKTI

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The worship of the female principle: its beginnings, 489-90. Goddesses in early Vedic texts, 490;—in the later Vedic texts, 491. Sakti worship in the epic literature, 492. Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa characterisation of the cult-goddess, 492-93. Tāntricism and its beginnings, 493-97.

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Mahiṣāsuramardinī icons, 497-500. Durgā Siṃhavāhinī, 500-01; Devī with godhikā, 501-02, Ekānaṃśā, 502-03.

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Mātṛkās in inscriptions and texts, 503-05; Sapta Mātṛkā and Tri Mātṛkā reliefs, 505; separate images of the Sapta Mātṛkās, 505-08.

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Tripurā-Bhairavī (Mahāmāyā) image from Kagajipara (Dacca), 508-09.

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CHAPTER XII : Miscellaneous and Syncretistic Icons : ... ... ... 510-63

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MISCELLANEOUS ICONS

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Brahmā, the first member of the orthodox Brahmanical triad: the beginnings of the concept, 510-11; development of the god-concept in the epic and Purāṇic period, 512-13;—not a success as a cult god, 513; some early and late mediaeval Brahmā shrines, 514-15. Textual descriptions of the Brahmā image, 516-17; some images of the god, mostly of a subsidiary character, 517-19.

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Aṣṭadikpālas: Concept about the Dikpālas or Lokapālas very old, different lists in different texts, 519-22. Indra worship and Indra image, 522-24; Agni in iconographic texts and art, 524-25; Yama, 525; Nirṛti, 526; Varuṇa, 526-27; Vāyu, 527-28; Kubera, 528-29; Īśāna, 529.

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Garuda: Concept of the sun-bird, mythology about Garuḍa, 529-30; development of the Garuḍa motif in early Indian art, 530-32. Textual descriptions and some extant images, 532-34.

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Nandin: Śiva's bull mount, development of the concept, his early anthropomorphisation, 534-36. Textual descriptions, 536.

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Āyudhapuruṣas: Personified attributes and weapons, 537-38; Sudarśana cakra of Viṣṇu, 539.

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SYNCRETISTIC ICONS

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Images illustrative of sectarian rivalry, 540. Attempts at rapprochement between rival creeds, 540-41; factors contributing to the growth of this feeling,—Smārta Pañcāyatana pūja, 541-42;—mental attitude of the early foreign immigrants into India, 542-44.

c7.98

Varieties of images illustrating this syncretistic tendency: Pañcāyatana Śivaliṅgas and miniature shrines, 544-45; Kaveripakkam stone plaque, 545. Hari-Hara-mūrti, 546; Hari-Hara-Sūrya-Buddha image, 546-47; Śiva-Lokeśvara, 547; Sūrya,-Lokeśvara, 547-48; Sūrya-Nārāyaṇa, 548-49; Sūrya-Śiva or Mārttaṇḍa-Bhairava, 549-50; Brahmā-Sūrya, 550; Brahmā-Viṣṇu-Śiva-Sūrya, 550-52; Ardhānārīśvara or Śiva-Śakti, 552-54; Viṣṇu-Lokeśvara, 554-57.