The Indian Buddhist Iconography, Mainly Based on the Sadhanamala and Other Cognate Tantric Texts of Rituals c13: Chapter IV

The Indian Buddhist Iconography, Mainly Based on the Sādhanamālā and Other Cognate Tāntric Texts of Rituals c13

Language: English

c13.s1 1. Ṣaḍakṣarī-Lokeśvara — 17 parts
c13.s2 2. Siṁhanāda — 12 parts
c13.s3 3. Khasarpaṇa — 20 parts
c13.s4 4. Lokanātha — 12 parts
c13.s5 5. Hālāhala — 8 parts
c13.s6 6. Padmanartteśvara — 9 parts
c13.s7 7. Harihariharivāhana — 7 parts
c13.s8 10. Māyājālakrama — 8 parts
c13.s9 11. Nīlakaṇṭha — 9 parts
c13.s10 12. Sugatisandarśana — 5 parts
c13.s11 13. Pretasantarpita — 5 parts
c13.s12 14. Sukhāvatī Lokeśvara — 5 parts
c13.s13 15. Vajradharma — 7 parts
c13.s14 General — 4 parts

Chapter IV

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Avalokiteśvara is famous in the Mahāyāna Pantheon as a Bodhisattva emanating from the Dhyāni Buddha, Amitābha and his Śakti, Pāṇḍarā. As Amitābha and Pāṇḍarā are the presiding Dhyāni Buddha and Buddhaśakti of the present Kalpa (cycle), namely, the Bhadrakalpa, Avalokiteśvara is said to be the Bodhisattva who rules during the period between the disappearance of the Mortal Buddha, Śākyasiṃha, and the advent of the Future Buddha, Maitreya. The Guṇakāraṇḍavyūha ¹ gives an account of his character, moral teachings and miracles and from it is learnt that he refused Nirvāṇa, until all created beings should be in possession of the Bodhi knowledge and to that end he is still supposed to work and foster spiritual knowledge amongst his fellow creatures. One of the passages in Kāraṇḍavyūha ² characterises him as taking the shape of all gods of all religions, nay, even the shape of the father and mother,—in fact, the form of the worshipped of any and every worshipper, to whom he might impart knowledge of Dharma. By a slow and gradual process, first human beings and then animals and other creatures would advance spiritually to obtain salvation. For all these reasons Avalokiteśvara is characterised as the best of the Saṅgha, the Jewel of the Buddhist Church or Saṅgharatna.

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¹ R. Mitra : *Sanskrit Buddhist Literature*, p. 95.

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² Kāraṇḍavyūha : ed. Sāmāśramī, pp. 21-22.

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The Sādhanamālā gives altogether thirty-eight Sādhanas which describe a variety of forms of Avalokiteśvara. Some of these forms have already been described by M. Foucher in his *Etude sur l' Iconographie Bouddhique de l'Inde*, Vol II with translations in French of the Sanskrit texts of the Sādhanas.

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From the Sādhanamālā and allied works it is possible to individualize at least fifteen different forms of Avalokiteśvara. All these forms are described in the following pages one by one. These fifteen by no means exhaust the forms of Avalokiteśvara since there is evidence that these forms even numbered one hundred and eight, each of them bearing distinct features and distinct names. In the Macchandar Vahal one of the numerous Vihāras of Kāṭhmāṇḍu in Nepal, there are paintings in many colours of one hundred and eight varieties of the Bodhisattva, executed on the wooden panel surrounding the main temple on three sides. These paintings appear to be at least two hundred years old, and they bear inscriptions in old Newari giving the names of deities they depict.

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Clearly, from the view point of antiquity, this discovery is of lesser importance than the ones obtained from earlier Tāntric works, but as the overwhelming number of forms is likely to throw a flood of light on the iconography of Avalokiteśvara, a description of all these varieties is given with their respective illustrations in a separate Appendix at the end of this volume.

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Out of the fifteen different forms of Avalokiteśvara mentioned above fourteen bear the figure of Amitābha on the crown, thus clearly revealing their origin. The fifteenth, Vajradharma by name, is said to bear the figures of the five Dhyāni Buddhas on his crown.

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Images of Avalokiteśvara are found abundantly in India and Nepal. Out of these the typical ones are described in their appropriate places. Such images are popular both in Tibet ¹ as well as in China ².

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¹ Gordon : ITL, p, 44 illustrates a Tibetan drawing of Lokeśvara with eleven heads and eight arms. This form is not described anywhere in Sanskrit. Getty : GNB, pp. 60-64.

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² References to statuettes from China are given at their appropriate places.

1. Ṣaḍakṣarī-Lokeśvara

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Colour—White Arms—Four Mudrā—Añjali Symbols—Rosary and lotus Companions—Maṇidhara and Ṣaḍakṣarī Mahāvidyā

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Four Sādhanas in the Sādhanamālā are devoted to the worship of this form of Avalokiteśvara, of which two describe him in a group of three. In a third he is accompanied by Ṣaḍakṣarī Mahāvidyā, and in the fourth he is single. In all these, the form of Lokeśvara is the same. Below is quoted the Dhyāna of the Sādhana describing him in a group of three :-

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“Ātmānaṃ Lokeśvararūpaṃ sarvālaṅkārabhūṣitaṃ śuklavarṇaṃ vāmataḥ padmadharaṃ dakṣiṇato’kṣasūtradharaṃ aparābhyāṃ hastābhyāṃ hṛdi sampuṭāñjalisthitaṃ dhyāyāt. Dakṣiṇe Maṇidharaṃ tattadvarṇabhujānvitaṃ padmāntaroparisthaṃ. Vāme tathaiva aparapadmasthāṃ Ṣaḍakṣarīṃ Mahāvidyām”. Sādhanamālā, p. 27.

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“The worshipper should think himself as [Ṣaḍakṣarī] Lokeśvara who is decked in all sorts of ornaments, white in colour, and four-armed, carrying the lotus in the left hand and the rosary in the right.

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The other two hands are joined in forming the mudrā of clasped hand against the chest. To his right is Maṇidhara, with the same colour and the same hands, sitting on another lotus. To the left is Ṣaḍakṣarī Mahāvidyā with identical form sitting on another lotus”.

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The Dhyāna of this god has been extracted from the Kāraṇḍavyūha according to a statement in one of the colophons of the Sādhanas. The Mantra assigned to this form of Avalokiteśvara is the famous “Oṃ Maṇipadme Hūṃ” consisting of six syllables which are here deified in the form of Ṣaḍakṣarī Mahāvidyā. When Lokeśvara is associated with the Great Knowledge of the Six Syllables, he is called Ṣaḍakṣarī Lokeśvara.

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An artistic sculpture ( Fig. 94 ) depicting all the three deities of the Ṣaḍakṣarī group is preserved in the Sarnath Museum ¹. In this group, Ṣaḍakṣarī Lokeśvara is in the middle, the figure to the right is Maṇidhara and the female figure to the left is Ṣaḍakṣarī Mahāvidyā. It may be noticed that under the seats of lotuses there are four diminutive figures which represent none else than the four guardians of the gates of the Ṣaḍakṣarī Maṇḍala, as prescribed in the Kāraṇḍavyūha ².

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¹ Sarnath Catalogue, No. B (e) 6. Pl XIV (b)

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² Kāraṇḍavyūha, p. 74.

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Another artistic but mutilated image of the Ṣaḍakṣarī group (Fig. 95) is now to be found in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. In this piece both Maṇidhara and Ṣaḍakṣarī Mahāvidyā are shown in the peculiar attitude of sitting known as Vīrāsana.

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A third image (Fig. 96) found in the district of Birbhum by Mr. K. N. Dikshit ³ of the Archaeological Department is also of the Ṣaḍakṣarī group, although it is mutilated beyond recognition. The central figure depicting Ṣaḍakṣarī Lokeśvara has lost two hands bearing the rosary and the lotus, but the marks are still there on the stone. The two hands exhibiting the Añjali mudrā hold also the jewel.

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³ A. S. I. Eastern Circle, Annual Report, 1920-21, p. 27 and illustrated in pl. 1(2).

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Images of Ṣaḍakṣarī Lokeśvara both singly as well as in groups abound in Nepal and almost every monastery in Nepal contains one or more images. A coloured image of this divinity appears in the temple of Bodhnāth a famous place of pilgrimage in Nepal.

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Fig. 97 illustrates the principal deity as single in a beautiful bronze now preserved in the Baroda Museum.

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When he appears in a group of two in the company of Ṣaḍakṣarī Mahāvidyā, the goddess may have another form depicting her in Vīrāsana with yellow colour and two hands. Her right hand remains empty, while the left holds the jewel. The Sarnath Museum image (Fig. 98) although mutilated, must represent this form of Ṣaḍakṣarī Mahāvidyā who can be readily recognised by the peculiar Āsana which is uncommon in Buddhist iconography.

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Another alternative is also prescribed in the Sādhanamālā for all the three deities, and the Sādhana adds: "Sometimes in the Sādhana of Ṣaḍakṣarī Mahāvidyā, Lokeśvara holds also the lotus bearing the jewel and the book. Maṇidhara may hold the jewel and the lotus but should be without the book. Ṣaḍakṣarī may hold the book and the lotus but should not have the jewel.¹

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¹ Sādhanamālā, p. 36.

2. Siṁhanāda

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Colour—White

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Āsana—Mahārājalīlā

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Vāhana—Lion

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Symbols—(i)Sword on lotus, (ii) Triśūla entwined by a snake

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Four Sādhanas also are devoted to the worship of Siṃhanāda, who is regarded by the Mahāyānists as the curer of all diseases. He is one of the most popular forms of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, and his images are by no means rare in India. At Patan in Nepal, all the more important monasteries have two images of Siṃhanāda, either in stone or in bronze, on either side of the stair-case leading to the sanctum. He appears in many forms only slightly different from one another. The four Sādhanas alike describe him as follows:

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"Ātmānaṃ Siṃhanāda-Lokeśvararūpaṃ bhāvayet, śvetavarṇaṃ trinetraṃ jaṭāmukuṭinaṃ nirbhūṣaṇaṃ vyāghracarmaprābhṛtaṃ siṃhāsanasthaṃ mahārājalīlaṃ candrāsanaṃ candraprabhaṃ bhāvayet. Dakṣiṇe sitaphaṇiveṣṭitaṃ triśūlaṃ śvetaṃ, vāme nānāsugandhikusumaparipūritapadmabhājanaṃ. Vāmahastāt utthaṃ padmopari jvalatkhaḍgaṃ". Sādhanamālā, p. 63.

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"The worshipper should think himself as Siṃhanāda Lokeśvara of white complexion, with three eyes, and the jaṭāmukuṭa (crown of matted hair). He is without ornaments, is clad in tiger-skin, and sits on a lion in the attitude of princely ease. He is seated on the orb of the moon and is radiant like her. In his right there is a white trident entwined by a white snake, and in his left there is a lotus-bowl full of fragrant flowers. From his left hand rises a lotus on which there is a sword burning like fire".

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Images of Siṃhanāda are by no means rare and are rather easy to identify because of clear-cut symbols. Fig. 99 is the famous image of Siṃhanāda from Mahoba carrying a rosary¹. Fig. 100 is a Nepalese statue at the gate of a monastery. Fig. 101 illustrates a sculpture from Magadha, while Fig. 102 is a small bronze of Siṃhanāda without the lion, from Nepal. Siṃhanāda wears no ornaments and this feature of his images differentiates him from Mañjuśrī when he is on the back of a lion.

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¹ First published by K.N. Dikshit. : Six Sculptures from Mahoba in the A. S. I. Memoir No. 8, pl. Ia, p 2.

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Siṃhanāda is popular both in Tibet² and in China³.

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² Getty : GNB, pp. 60, 61, 69.

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³ Clark : TLP, II, pp. 199, 265. For the Magadha specimen see JRAS, 1894, pl. 1.

3. Khasarpaṇa

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Colour—White Symbol—Lotus Mudrā—Varada Āsana—Lalita or Ardhaparyaṅka Companions—Tārā, Sudhanakumāra, Bhṛkuṭī, Hayagrīva

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Khasarpaṇa is described in a number of Sādhanas in the Sādhanamālā, which fact points to his popularity. The peculiar feature of this god is that he is invariably accompanied by the four divinities Tārā, Sudhanakumāra, Bhṛkuṭī and Hayagrīva. The principal figure is the same as Lokanātha, two-armed, and one faced, carrying the same symbol and exhibiting the same Mudrā; the difference lies in the fact that Lokanātha has only two companions, Tārā and Hayagrīva while Khasarpaṇa has two in addition, namely, Bhṛkuṭī and Sudhanakumāra. He is of white complexion, and sits either in the Lalita or the Ardhaparyaṅka attitude. Below is given a somewhat lengthy Dhyāna describing the god :—

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Ātmānām Bhagavantaṃ dhyāyāt himakarakoṭikiraṇāvadātaṃ dehaṃ, ūrdhvajṭāmakuṭaṃ Amitābhaśekharaṃ viśvanaliniṣaṇṇaṃ śaśimaṇḍale, ardhaparyaṅkaniṣaṇṇaṃ sakalālaṅkāradharavigrahaṃ smeramukhaṃ dviraṣṭavarṣadeśīyaṃ dakṣiṇe varadakaraṃ vāmakareṇa sanālakamaladharaṃ, karavigalatpīyūṣadhārābhyavahārarasikaṃ tadadhaḥ samāropitordhvamukhaṃ mahākukṣiṃ atikṛśaṃ atisītivaiṇaṃ Sūcīmukhaṃ tarpayantaṃ śrīmat-Potalakācalodaranivāsinaṃ karuṇāsnigdhavilokanaṃ śṛṅgārarasaparyupāsitaṃ atisāntaṃ nānālaṅṣaṇālaṅkṛtaṃ. Tasya puratas-Tārā dakṣiṇapārśve Sudhanakumāraḥ.

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Tatra Tārā śyāmā, vāmakaravidhṛtaṃ sanālaṃ utpalaṃ dakṣiṇakareṇa vikāśayantī nānālaṅkāravatī abhinayauvanobhinnakucabhārā. Sudhanakumāraśca kṛtāñjalipuṭaḥ kanakābhāsidyutiḥ, kumārarūpadhārī vāmakakṣavinyastapustakaḥ sakalālaṅkāravān. Paścime Bhṛkuṭī Hayagrīva uttare.

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Tatra Bhṛkuṭī caturbhujā hemaprabhā jaṭākalāpinī, vāme tridaṇḍīkamaṇḍaludhārīhastā dakṣiṇe vandanābhinayākṣasūtradharakarā trinetrā.

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Hayagrīvo raktavarṇaḥ kharvalambodaraḥ ūrddhvajvalatpiṅgalakeśaḥ bhujagayajñopavītī kapilataraśmaśruśreṇīparicitamukhamanḍalaḥ raktavartulatrinetraḥ bhṛkuṭikuṭilabrūkaḥ vyāghracarmāmbaraḥ daṇḍāyudhaḥ dakṣiṇakareṇa vandanābhinayī.

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Ete sarva eva svanāyakānanapreritadṛṣṭayo yathāśobhaṃ avasthitāścintanīyāḥ...

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Iti Khasarpaṇasādhanam”. Sādhanamālā, pp. 39-41

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“The worshipper should think himself as the god (Khasarpaṇa) from whose body radiate rays of a crore of moons. He wears the Jaṭāmukuṭa (crown of matted hair), holds the image of Amitābha on his head, and sits on the moon over a double lotus in the Ardhaparyaṅka attitude. He is decked in all sorts of ornaments, has a smiling face, is aged about twice eight years, exhibits the Varada pose in the right hand, and holds the lotus with a stem in the left. He is an expert in distributing the stream of nectar that flows from his hand, and Sūcīmukha who stands below with an uplifted face, a protruding belly and very pale appearance receives the same. He resides in the womb of the mount Poṭalaka, looks beautiful with compassion, is full of the sentiment of Śṛṅgāra (amour), is extremely peaceful and is endowed with various auspicious marks

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“Before him is Tārā and to the right is Sudhanakumāra

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“Here Tārā is green. She causes to blossom with her right hand the lotus flower with a stem held in her left. She has many ornaments and her breasts are oppressively heavy due to adolescence

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“Sudhanakumāra, again, has his two hands joined ( añjali ), is resplendent like gold, and has the appearance of a prince. He carries the book under his left arm-pit and is decked in all ornaments.

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“To the West of the god is Bhṛkuṭī and to the North Hayagrīva

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“Here Bhṛkuṭī has four arms, is resplendent like gold has matted hair, carries the staff with three horns and the Kamaṇḍalu in the two left hands. The two right show the mudrā of bowing in one and the rosary in the second. She has three eyes.

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“Hayagrīva is red in colour and is short, with a protruding belly. His hair rises upwards in the shape of a flame, and he has a snake as his sacred thread. His face is recognised by a deep brown pair of moustaches; his eyes are red and round; his eye-brows are distorted in a frown. He is clad in tiger-skin, has the staff as a weapon, and his right hand exhibits the act of bowing.

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“All these deities should be meditated on as disposed in a befitting and artistic manner, with their eyes directed towards the face of the principal deity. Here ends the Sādhana for Khasarpaṇa.”

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The finest image (Fig. 103) of Khasarpaṇa was discovered by the late N. K. Bhattasali in the Pargana Vikrampur in Eastern Bengal ¹. The sculpture is recognized to be one of the best products of Bengal art. Had the central figure been mutilated like the one reproduced in Fig. 104 it would still be possible to identify Khasarpaṇa by means of the four companions to the right and the left of the principal god. Images of Khasarpaṇa are found in Tibet ² and China ³.

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¹ Bhattasali : IBBS, p. 24f, Pl. VII,a.

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² Gordon : ITL, p, 66

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³ Clark : TLP, II, pp. 202, 264.

4. Lokanātha

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Colour—White Symbol—Lotus Mudrā—Varada

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Four Sādhanas are devoted to the worship of the Lokanātha form of Avalokiteśvara. He is single in three Sādhanas and only one Sādhana describes him as accompanied by Tārā and Hayagrīva. The same Sādhana adds further that Lokanātha should be accompanied also by the eight Bodhisattvas : Maitreya, Kṣitigarbha, Vajrapāṇi, Khagarbha, Viṣkambhin, Samantabhadra, Mañjughoṣa, and Gaganagañja, and by the four goddesses : Dhūpā, Puṣpā, Gandhā, and Dīpā, and by the four guardians of the gates : Vajrāṅkuśī, Vajrapāśī, Vajrasphoṭā and Vajraghaṇṭā. In other words the Sādhana gives the constitution of the whole Maṇḍala of Lokanātha. The principal god has two hands and carries the lotus in the left hand and exhibits the Varada pose in the right, exactly like Khasarpaṇa previously described. The Sādhana which is in verse is given below :

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“Pūrvavat-kramayogena Lokanāthaṃ śaśiprabhaṃ I
Hrīḥkārākṣarasambhūtaṃ jaṭāmukuṭamaṇḍitaṃ II
Vajradharmajaṭāntaḥsthaṃ aśeṣaroganāśanaṃ I
Varadaṃ dakṣiṇe haste vāme padmadharaṃ tathā II
Lalitākṣepasaṃsthaṃ tu mahāsaumyaṃ prabhāsvaraṃ I
Varadotpalakarā saumyā Tārā dakṣiṇataḥ sthitā II
Vandanādaṇḍahastastu Hayagrīvo'tha vāmataḥ I
Raktavarṇo mahāraudro vyāghracarmāmbarapriyaḥ” II
Sādhanamālā, p. 49.

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“Following the same procedure as before, the worshipper should think himself as Lokanātha, resplendent like the moon, as springing from the sacred syllable Hrīḥ and wearing the Jaṭāmukuṭa.

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“He has within his matted hair the figure of the god, Vajradharma, is the destroyer of all diseases, exhibits the Varada mudrā in the right hand and carries the lotus in the left.

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"He sits in the Lalita attitude, is peaceful and resplendent. To his right is Tārā, who has a peaceful appearance, exhibits the Varada mudrā and carries the lotus.

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"To the left is Hayagrīva, who displays the gesture of bowing and carries the staff in his two hands. He is red in colour, appears terrible and is clad in the garment of tiger-skin".

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Later, the Sādhanā adds an account of the deities constituting the Lokanātha Maṇḍala, including the Bodhisattvas and the gatekeepers. The relevant text is given below:

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Tadvaraṭakāṣṭadale padme Maitreyādīṁ ca vinyaset I
Maitreyaḥ pītavarṇaśca nāgapuṣpavarapradaḥ II
Kṣitigarbhaḥ śyāmavarṇaḥ kalaśaṁ cābhayaṁ tathā I
Vajrapāṇiśca śuklābho vajrahasto varapradaḥ II
Khagarbho nabhaḥśyāmābho cintāmaṇi-varapradaḥ I
Mañjughoṣaḥ kanakābhaḥ khaḍgapustakadhārakaḥ II
Gaganagañjo raktavarṇo nīlotpalavarapradaḥ I
Viṣkambhī tu kṣāravarṇo ratnottamavarapradaḥ II
Samantabhadraḥ pītābhaḥ ratnotpalavarapradaḥ I
Dhūpādicaturdevī ca Vajrāṅkuṣyādidvāra-gāḥ II
Varṇāyudhe yathāpūrvaṁ maṇḍalasyānusārataḥ I
Evamvidhaiḥ samāyuktaṁ Lokanāthaṁ prabhāvayet II".

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Sādhanamālā, pp. 49-50

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"On the eight petals of the lotus [on which the god sits] should be placed the gods Maitreya and others. Maitreya is yellow in colour carries the Nāga [keśara] flower and exhibits the Varada pose. Kṣitigarbha is of green colour, carries the Kalaśa and exhibits the Abhaya pose. Vajrapāṇi is whitish in colour, carries the Vajra and exhibits the Abhaya mudrā. Khagarbha has the colour of the blue sky, carries the Cintāmaṇi and exhibits the Varada mudrā. Mañjughoṣa is of golden complexion and carries in his two hands the sword and the book. Gaganagañja is of red colour, carries the lotus and exhibits the Varada mudrā. Viṣkambhīn is ash-coloured, carries the excellent jewel and exhibits the Varada mudrā. Samantabhadra is yellowish in complexion, carries the jewel on a lotus and exhibits the Varada mudrā. The four goddesses Dhūpā and others (accompany Lokanātha) and the (four goddesses) Vajrāṅkuśī and others guard the gates, their colour and weapons being in accordance with the canons the Maṇḍala. In this way Lokanātha should be meditated upon by the worshipper".

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When represented, Lokanātha is generally alone and is occasionally accompanied by Tārā and Hayagrīva. In paintings of the complete Maṇḍala alone all the companion deities are expected to be present. Lokanātha may sit in three attitudes according to three different Sādhanas; he may have the Lalita, the Paryaṅka or the Vajrāparyaṅka attitude. Out of all images of Lokanātha so far discovered, the one from Mahoba is perhaps the best and the most artistic (Fig. 105). There is a fine bronze of Lokanātha (Fig 106) in the Baroda Museum. The Sarnath image (Fig. 107) shows the miniature figure of Amitābha in the Samādhi mudrā on the crown. The Nepal image is made of pure ivory (Fig. 108). These last two represent Lokanātha in the standing attitude.

5. Hālāhala

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Colour—White Faces—Three Hands—Six Companion—Prajñā

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Three Sādhanas in the Sādhanamālā are devoted to the worship of Hālāhala Lokeśvara. Images of this divinity are rarely to be met with in India, but in Nepal there are some, though they do not strictly follow the Sādhana. The distinguishing feature of Hālāhala is that he is generally accompanied by his Śakti or female energy whom he carries on his lap. The Sādhanas all enjoin the presence of the Śakti, but in a stone image from Nepal (Fig. 109), he is represented alone. According to the Sādhana the god should be seated, but the image above referred to represents him in a standing attitude. The Dhyāna contained in one of the Sādhanas is in verse and reads as follows :

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"Hrīhkārabījniṣpannaṁ Hālāhalaṁ mahākṛpaṁ I
Trinetraṁ trimukhaṁ caiva jaṭāmukuṭamaṇḍitaṁ II
Prathamāsyaṁ sitaṁ nīladakṣiṇaṁ vāmalohitaṁ I
Śaśāṅkārdhadharaṁ mūrdhni kapālakṛtaśekharaṁ II
Jaṭāntaḥsthajinaṁ samyak sarvābharaṇabhūṣitaṁ I
Sītāravindanirbhāsaṁ śṛṅgārarasasundaraṁ II
Ṣaḍbhujaṁ smeravaktraṁ ca vyāghracarmāmbarapriyaṁ I
Varadaṁ dakṣiṇe pāṇau dvitīye cākṣamālikāṁ II
Tṛtīye śaranarttanaṁ ca vāme cāpadharaṁ tathā I
Dvitīye sitapadmaṁ ca tṛtīye stanameva ca II

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Vāmajānunā sitāṁ Svābhadevīṁ dadhānaṁ. Vāmena kamaladharāṁ dakṣiṇena bhujena Bhagavadalīnganaparāṁ kusumaśobhitajāṭakalāpāṁ. Dakṣiṇapārśve sarpaveṣṭitaṁ triśūlaṁ, vāmapārśve padmasthakapālaṁ nānāsugandhikusumaiḥ sampūrṇaṁ, raktapadmacandre līlākṣepasthitaṁ vibhāvayet Bhagavantaṁ." Sādhanamālā, pp. 65-66.

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¹ K. N. Dikshit : *Six Sculptures from Mahoba*, in the Memoir No. 8 of A.S.I.

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"The worshipper should think himself as Hālāhala, the Great Compassionate, originating from the sacred syllable Hrīḥ, with three eyes, three faces and matted hair rising upwards in the shape of a crown. The first (or the principal) face is white, the right blue and the left red. He bears on his head the crescent and the Kapāla. The Jina Amitābha is within his matted hair and he is decked in all ornaments. He is resplendent like the white lotus and appears beautiful by the sentiment of passionate love he displays. He has six arms, a smiling face and is fond of garments of tiger-skin. He displays the Varada mudrā in the first right hand, the second has the rosary, while the third flourishes the arrow. The first left hand carries the bow, the second the white lotus and the third touches the breast (of his Śakti). He carries the Śakti of his own creation on the left lap. She shows the lotus in the left hand and the right is engaged in the act of embracing the god Her Jaṭā (matted hair) is decorated with flowers. To their right is the Triśūla entwined by a snake, and on the left is the Kāpala on the lotus, full of fragrant flowers. The god sits in the Lalita attitude on the red lotus".

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One image of Hālāhala is found in China ¹.

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¹ Clark : TLP, II, 265.

6. Padmanartteśvara

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(I) Eighteen—Armed Face—One Arms—Eighteen Āsana—Dancing in Ardhaparyaṅka Symbol—Double lotus in all hands

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Three Sādhanas in the Sādhanamālā are devoted to the worship of this variant of Avalokiteśvara, all entirely different and describing three widely different forms of the deity. It is, therefore, necessary that all the three Dhyānas should be quoted and translated. There is no difficulty in taking the three to refer to Padmanartteśvara, because all doubt is set at rest by the fact that the Mantra, where mentioned, is in all cases the same, and that the Sādhanas always designate him as Padmanartteśvara.

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Images of Padmanartteśvara are rare in India. Fig. 110 illustrates one good example from Nepal. It follows the Dhyāna given below:

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"Padmanartteśvarāmnāyena Ārya-Avalokiteśvara-Bhaṭṭārakaṃ ātmānaṃ vibhāvayet ekamukhaṃ aṣṭādaśabhujaṃ ardhaparyaṅkinaṃ Amitābhajaṭājūṭamaṇḍalaṃ sarvakarair-viśvapadmadhāriṇaṃ, yoginīvṛndaparivṛtaṃ, dakṣiṇavāmapārśvasthita-Tārā-Sudhana-Bhr̥kuṭī-Hayagrīvaṃ divyālaṅkāravastrabhūṣaṇaṃ." Sādhanamālā, p. 77.

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“The worshipper should think himself as Bhaṭṭāraka Avalokiteśvara in the form of Padmanartteśvara, who is one-faced and eighteen-armed. He stands in the Ardhaparyaṅka attitude, and on his Jaṭāmukuṭa there is an effigy of Amitābha. He carries the double lotus in all his (eighteen) hands and is surrounded by a host of Yoginīs. His right and left sides are occupied by Tārā, Sudhana, Bhṛkuṭī and Hayagrīva. He is decked in all kinds of divine ornaments and dress”.

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The Āsana prescribed in the Sādhana is the Ardhaparyaṅka. This Āsana may have two varieties; the ordinary, which is also called the Mahārājalīlā, as in the cases of Vāgīśvara and Siṃhanāda, and the dancing variety, (ardhaparyaṅkena nāṭyastha) as in the cases of Heruka, Vajravārāhī and others. As the word ‘nartteśvara’ means the “God of Dance” or the “God in a dancing attitude” the Āsana of Padmanartteśvara may be taken as the dancing variety of Ardhaparyaṅka, and this is borne out by the fact that the Nepal image illustrated in Fig. 110 shows the god in this particular attitude. This image hails from the Sarasvatīsthāna or the Mañjuśrī Hill at Svayambhūkṣettra in Nepal. Though the god is here represented with only two of the companion deities, yet the principal figure corresponds in all details, to the description given in the Sādhanamālā.

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One statuette of this god is found in China¹. This Chinese statuette is illustrated in Fig. 111.

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¹ Calrk : TLP, II, 193.

(II) Two-Armed

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Colour—Red Companion—Śakti Mudrā—Sūcī Symbol—Lotus Vāhana—Animal

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Another form of Padmanartteśvara is described in a second Sādhana, and the Dhyāna contained therein runs as follows:

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“Padmanartteśvaram ātmānaṃ bhāvayet sattvaparyaṅkaniṣaṇṇaṃ dvibhujaikamukhaṃ raktaṃ sakalālaṅkāradharaṃ Amitābhamukuṭaṃ vāmapārśve Pāṇḍaravāsinīsamāśliṣṭaṃ āliṅanābhinayasthitavāmabhu-jena raktapadmadharaṃ, narttanābhinayena Sūcīmudrayā vikāśayada-paradakṣiṇakaraṃ...”. Sādhanamālā, p. 75.

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“The worshipper should think himself as Padmanartteśvara, who is seated on an animal, is two-armed and one-faced. His colour is red, and he is decked in all kinds of ornaments; he bears the effigy of Amitābha on the crown and is embraced by Pāṇḍaravāsinī in the left. His left hand, which carries the lotus, is raised in the act of embracing (the Śakti), while the right shows the Sūcīmudrā in the act of dancing...”.

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The same Sādhana which contains the Dhyāna quoted above, gives a description of the Maṇḍala, and adds the information that the lotus on which the god sits has eight petals. The petals contain one goddess each. For instance, on the East petal there is Vilokinī, white in colour and carrying the red lotus. The South is occupied by Tārā of green colour, holding the Palāśa and the lotus flowers. Bhūriṇī is in the West, is yellow in complexion and carries the Cakra and the blue lotus. Bhṛkuṭi is in the North, with white colour holding the yellow lotus. In the North-East there is Padmavāsinī, who is yellow in colour and holds the red lotus. The South-East is occupied by Viśvapadmeśvarī, who is sky-coloured and holds the white lotus. The South-West is occupied by Viśvapadmā, who is white and carries the the black lotus. In the Norh-West there is Viśvavajrā of variegated colour holding the double lotus ¹.

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¹ Sādhanamālā, pp, 75—76.

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Fig. 112 illustrates a Nepalese drawing of the principal deity although it does not agree with the Sādhana in all details.

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(III) Eight-Armed Colour—Red Arms—Eight Āsana—Dancing in Ardhaparyaṅka

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One Sādhana in the Sādhanamālā describes an eight-armed form of Padmanartteśvara. The Dhyāna contained therein is given below : “Namaḥ Padmanartteśvarāya.

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Tatra Viśvapadmopari candre rakta-Hrīhkāra-pariṇataṃ Padmanartteśvaraṃ raktavarṇaṃ ekamukhaṃ jaṭāmukuṭinaṃ trinetraṃ, aṣṭabhujaṃ sarvālaṅkārabhūṣitaṃ sarpayajñopavītaṃ ardhaparyaṅkena tāṇḍavaṃ. Prathamabhujadvayena nṛtyābhinayaṃ, dvitīyadakṣiṇabhujena hṛdi vikāśayantaṃ sūcīmudrāṃ, vāmabhujena raktapadmaṃ śirasi dhṛtaṃ, tṛtīyabhujadvayena vajravaddaṇḍatriśūladharaṃ, caturthabhujadvayena akṣasūtrakuṇḍikādharamaṃ, aṣṭadevīparivṛtaṃ, evambhūtaṃ Padmanatteśvaraṃ Lokanāthaṃ bhāvayet.” Sādhanamālā, p. 76.

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“Salutation to Padmanartteśvara !

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Here the worshipper should think himself as Padmanatteśvara, on the moon over the double lotus, originating from the sacred syllable Hrīḥ. He is red in colour with one face, the Jaṭāmukuṭa, three eyes and eight arms. He is decked in all sorts of ornaments, wears the sacred thread of a snake, and dances in the Ardhaparyaṅka attitude. The first pair of hands exhibits the dancing pose; the second right shows the Sūcīmudrā against the chest, the second left holds a red lotus over his head.; the third pair carries the staff and the Triśūla, stamped with the Vajra; while the fourth pair carries the rosary and the water-pot. The principal god is surrounded by eight goddesses. In such a manner the god Padmanartteśvara Lokanātha should be meditated upon”.

7. Harihariharivāhana

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Colour—White Arms—Six Vāhana—Siṃha, Garuḍa and Viṣṇu

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The composition of the deity is so queer that great difficulty is experienced in recognizing the images of this form of Avalokiteśvara, called by the peculiar name of Harihariharivāhana. The Sādhanas gives a description of the god, but is practically silent as to why such a special name is given to this particular variety of Lokeśvara. India has not given uptil now any image of Harihariharivāhana and it is rare even in Nepal. There is only one sculpture at Svayambhūkṣettra and a bronze in one of the monasteries at Pattan, and both of them follow the Sādhana faithfully. The lion is lowermost, on it rides Garuḍa. On the back of Garuḍa, again, rides the Hindu god Viṣṇu with the four symbols, the conch, the discus, the mace and the lotus. On the shoulder of Viṣṇu rides Lokeśvara. The lion, the Garuḍa and the god Viṣṇu, all have ‘Hari’ as their synonym and because the vehicle of Lokeśvara is composed of three ‘Hari’s, the principal god acquires the name of Harihariharivāhana. Two Sādhanas in the Sādhanamālā are devoted to the worship of this form of Ārya Avalokiteśvara and the Dhyāna in one of them describes the god in the following terms :-

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Harihariharivāhanodbhavaṃ Bhagavantaṃ Ārya-Avalokiteśvaraṃ sarvāṅgaśuklaṃ jaṭāmukuṭinaṃ śāntaveśaṃ dakṣiṇakareṇa Bhagavantaṃ Tathāgataṃ sākṣiṇaṃ kurvantaṃ dvitīyena akṣamālādhāriṇaṃ tṛtīyena duḥkuhakaṃ lokaṃ upadeśayantaṃ vāmena daṇḍadharaṃ dvitīyena kṛṣṇājinadharaṃ tṛtīyena kamaṇḍaludharaṃ siṃha-garuḍa-viṣṇu-skandhasthitaṃ ātmānaṃ dhyātvā...”

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Sādhanamālā, p. 77

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“The worshipper should think himself as the Harihariharivāhana form of god Avalokiteśvara, white in all limbs, with the Jaṭāmukuṭa (crown of matted hair) and clad in graceful garments. He cites the Tathāgata as witness with one of his right hands, carries the rosary in the second, and instructs deluded people with the third. He carries the staff in one of his left hands, the deer-skin in the second and the Kamaṇḍalu in the third. He sits on the shoulder of Viṣṇu below whom there are Garuḍa and the lion. Thus meditating...”

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of Amitābha. He carries the red lotus in the left hand, and opens its petals with the right and is decked in various ornaments and dress...”

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A reference may here be made to the Dhyāna of Vajradharma another variety of Lokeśvara, equally unrepresented, whose form will be described later in this chapter. The forms of Rakta-Lokeśvara and Vajradharma are almost identical with the difference that the Sādhanā enjoins for Vajradharma, the Vāhana of a peacock.

10. Māyājālakrama

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Faces—Five Hands—Twelve

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Āsana—Pratyālīḍha Colour—Blue

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As the Sādhanā for the worship of this particular form of Avalokiteśvara, occurs originally in the Māyājāla Tantra, this peculiar name has been given to the deity. This is the only fierce form of Lokeśvara known to the Indian Buddhists, although fiercer forms are to be met with in the Tibetan Buddhist Iconography. The Dhyāna given in the Sādhanamālā describes him in the following terms :

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“Bhagavantaṃ Ārya-Avalokiteśvaraṃ kṛṣṇavarṇaṃ pratyālīḍhasthaṃ sūryamaṇḍalasthitaṃ pañcamukhaṃ trinetraṃ dvādaśabhujaṃ sitaraktadakṣiṇamukhadvayaṃ tathā pītaharitavāmamukhadvayaṃ dakṣiṇabhujaiḥ ḍamaru-khaṭvāṅga-aṅkuśa-pāśa-vajra-śaradharaṃ, vāmabhujaiḥ tarjanī-kapāla-raktakamala-maṇi-cakra-cāpadharaṃ daṃṣṭrākārālasakalavadanaṃ ṣaṇmudropetaṃ sārdramuṇḍamālālaṅkṛtaśarīraṃ nagnaṃ sarvāṅgasundaraṃ ātmānaṃ jhaṭiti pratyākalayya...”

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Sādhanamālā, p. 86

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“The worshipper should think himself as Ārya-Avalokiteśvara, whose colour is blue. He stands in the Pratyālīḍha attitude, on the orb of the sun. He is five-faced, three-eyed, twelve-armed, with the two right faces of white and red colour, and two left of yellow and green colour. He carries in his right hands the 1. Ḍamaru, 2. the Khaṭvāṅga, 3. the goad, 4. the noose, 5. the Vajra and the 6. the arrow, and in the left hands the 1. raised index finger, 2. the Kapāla, 3. the red lotus, 4. the jewel, 5. the discus, and 6. the bow. His faces look terrible with bare fangs. He wears the six bone ornaments and his person is embellished by the garland of heads. He is nude and appears beautiful in all limbs. Thus quickly meditating...”

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One illustration of this form of Lokeśvara occurs in the *Two Lamaistic Pantheons* of Clark ¹. His statue can be seen in Nepal at Svayambhūkṣettra. A Nepalese drawing of this form is illustrated in the Appendix.

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¹ Clark: TLP, II, p. 267

11. Nīlakaṇṭha

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Colour—Yellow Āsana—Vajraparyaṅka. Mudrā—Samādhi Symbol—Bowl of Jewels Companions—Two serpents on either side

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One Sādhana only is devoted to the worship of this form of Lokeśvara, which is almost identical with that of Amitābha, his sire, whose image he bears on his head. Indeed, this mark of descent and the sacred thread he wears, constitute the only points of difference between them. Amitābha being a Dhyāni Buddha, has no father. Nīlakaṇṭha, according to the Sādhana, is accompanied by two serpents. The Dhyāna is given below

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“Bhagavantaṃ pītavarṇaṃ ardhacandrāṅkitajaṭāmukuṭinaṃ Amitābhopalakṣitaśiraḥpradeśaṃ raktapadmoparisthitaṃ ; kṛṣṇasārahariṇacarmaṇi vajraparyaṅkinaṃ samādhimudropari nānāratnaparipūrṇakapāladhāriṇaṃ eṇeyacarmakṛtayajñopavītinaṃ, vyāghracarmāmbaradharaṃ nirābharaṇaṃ Nīlakaṇṭhaṃ nīlaguṭikāviśiṣṭakaṇṭhaṃ ; pārśvadvaye parasparābhisambaddhapuccha-samaṇiphaṇāviśiṣṭa-Bhagavadavalokanaparordhvamukhakṛṣṇasarpadvayopalakṣitaṃ ātmānaṃ evaṃ vibhāvayet... Sādhanamālā, pp. 85-86

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“The worshipper should think himself as the god Nīlakaṇṭha, who is yellow in colour and whose Jaṭāmukuṭa is adorned with the crescent and the effigy of Amitābha. He sits in the Vajraparyaṅka attitude on a red lotus, on which is spread the skin of black deer. He exhibits the Samādhi mudrā with his two hands carrying the Kapāla (bowl) filled with a variety of gems. His sacred thread is made of the deer-skin (eṇeya-carma). He wears the tiger-skin, and bears no ornaments (on his person). His throat shows the blue pill (of poison). The two sides of the god are occupied by two cobras with jewels on their hoods and tails entwined with each other. They look towards the god. Thus mediating...”

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Apparently, the conception of this god has been modelled on the Hindu deity Śiva, who is said to have saved the world from destruction by swallowing the poison that issued from the mouth of Vāsuki, the lord of serpents, while the gods and demons were churning the ocean together. The poison, could it have entered Śiva’s stomach, would surely have destroyed him, but it remained in his throat, and as the colour of the poison is said to be blue, there is a blue spot in the white throat of the god. That is the reason why the name Nīlakaṇṭha (Blue-throat) has been given to Śiva. As this particular form of Lokeśvara has also the same name, it may well be that its origin was the Hindu god Śiva Nīlakaṇṭha.

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A confusion is likely to arise in the identification of the images of Nīlakaṇṭha and Vajrarāga, a variety of Mañjuśrī, if their respective sires are not represented. The only point of distinction in that case would be the total absence of ornaments and rich garments in the case of Nīlakaṇṭha. If the image bears princely ornaments and is richly clad, it must be identified as that of Mañjuśrī.

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In the temple of Bodhnath in Nepal, a coloured image of this god is found, but here he is alone, without the serpents. The other image. (Fig. 116) hails from the monastery at Sarnath. In this sculpture two tiny figures carrying bowls are seen instead of two serpents.

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One statuette of this deity occurs in the Chinese collection ¹.

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¹ Clark : TLP, II, p. 267,

12. Sugatisandarśana

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Colour—White Arms—Six

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One short Sādhana in the Sādhanamālā describes this form of Avalokiteśvara. The Dhyāna for Sugatisandarśana describes his form in the following words :

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“Sugatisandarśana-Lokeśvara-Bhaṭṭārakaṃ śuklavarṇaṃ ṣaḍbhujaṃ varadābhayākṣamālādharaṃ dakṣiṇe, vāme padmakuṇḍitridanḍidharaṃ ca ratnābharaṇabhūṣitaṃ vratasūtradhāriṇaṃ jaṭāmukuṭaṃ padmopari candramaṇḍalasthitaṃ saumyarūpaṃ bhāvayet”. Sādhanamālā, p. 88

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The worshipper should think himself as Bhaṭṭāraka Sugatisandarśana Lokeśvara white in complexion, six-armed, showing the Varada and Abhaya poses and the rosary in the three right hands, and carrying the lotus, the water-pot and the staff with three horns in the three left hands. He is decked in ornaments and jewels, wears the sacred thread and a crown of matted hair. He stands on the moon over lotus and is peaceful in appearance”.

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Fig. 117 illustrates a Nepalese drawing of Sugatisandarśana Lokeśvara which agrees with the Sādhana in major details.

13. Pretasantarpita

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Colour—White Arms—Six

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Only one Sādhana in the Sādhanamālā describes this form of Avalokiteśvara. The Dhyāna describing the form of Pretasantarpita is brief and is worded as follows :

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“Jaṭāmukuṭinaṃ ṣaḍbhujaṃ prathamabhujadvayena varadau dvitīya-bhujadvayena ratnapustakau tṛtīyabhujadvayena akṣamālātridaṇḍikaṃ, sarvālaṅkārabhūṣitaṃ vratasūtradhāriṇaṃ saumyamūrtiṃ, padmopari candramaṇḍale sthitaṃ śvetavarṇaṃ vibhāvayet”. Sādhanamālā, p. 89

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“The worshipper should think himself as Pretasantarpita Lokeśvara who bears the Jaṭāmukuṭa (crown of matted hair), is six-armed, exhibits in the first pair of hands the Varada pose, carries in the scond pair the jewel and the book, and in the third pair holds the rosary and the Tridaṇḍī (staff with three horns). He is decked in all sorts of ornaments, wears the sacred thread, has a graceful appearance, stands on the orb of the moon on lotus, and is white in colour.”

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Fig. 118 illustrates a Nepalese drawing of Pretasantarpita Lokeśvara.

14. Sukhāvatī Lokeśvara

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Colour—White Faces—Three Arms—Six Asana—Lalita Companion—Śakti

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A description of the deity occurs in the Dharmakoṣasaṅgraha of Amṛtānanda. Nepal abounds in images of Sukhāvatī Lokeśvara both in stone and in bronze, though his images are not found in any other Buddhist country of the North. The description above referred to runs as follows:

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“Trimukhaḥ śvetavarṇaḥ ṣaḍbhujaḥ dakṣe mudrāḥ, śarakṣepa-japa-mālā-varadāni, vāmeṣu dhanuḥ-kamala-Tārorūsamarpaṇāni lalitāsanaḥ kamalopari, Vajratārā-Viśvatārā-Padmatārābhiḥ parivṛtaḥ. Upari caityaḥ. Sukhāvatī Lokeśvaraḥ”

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“Sukhāvatī Lokeśvara is three-faced, white in colour, and six-armed. One of his right hands is in the act of shooting an arrow, the remaining two have the rosary and the Varada pose. In two of his left hands he carries the bow and the lotus, and the third is placed on the thigh of Tārā. He sits in Lalitāsana on the lotus, and is surrounded by the goddesses Vajratārā, Viśvatārā, Padmatārā and the like. There is a Caitya on the top”.

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Fig. 119 illustrates a sculpture from Nepal representing the deity Sukhāvatī Lokeśvara. Here the god is in the company of his Śakti but is without the other companions as prescribed.

15. Vajradharma

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Colour—Reddish White Vāhana—Peacock Symbol—Lotus

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One Sādhana in the Sādhanamālā describes this form of Avalokiteśvara. The distinguishing feature of this god is that he rides a peacock. The Sādhana in question is entirely in verse, and the relevant portion containing the description of the form of Vajradharma is given below :

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"Taṃ sitaṃ raktavarṇaṃ tu padmarāgasamadyutim I
Pañcabuddhamukuṭadharaṃ harṣeṇotphullalocanaṃ II
Vāmato spardhayā nālaṃ dhṛtvā ṣoḍaśapatrakam I
Padmaṃ vikāśayantañca hṛdi dakṣiṇapāṇinā II
Mayūropari madhyasthe niṣaṇṇaṃ candramaṇḍale I
Sattvaparyaṅkamābhujya saśṛṅgārarasotsavam II
Caityāntaḥsthamahākarma-kūṭāgāravihāriṇaṃ I
Bhāvayet Vajradharmāgryaṃ nityaṃ Bodhiṃ avāpnuyāt." II

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Sādhanamālā, p. 33.

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"The worshipper should conceive himself as excellent Vajradharma, of reddish white complexion, bright as the Padmarāga gem, who bears the effigies of the Five Dhyāni Buddhas on the crown. His eyes beam with delight ; and he holds with pride the stem of a lotus with sixteen petals in his left hand and with the right causes it to blossom against his chest. He sits on the moon over lotus on the back of a peacock, enjoys his seat of the animal and displays the delightful sentiment of amour. He moves in the sanctum of the Caitya, the place for great performances. He ( the worshipper ) certainly receives the Bodhi who meditates (upon him) in this manner."

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Fig. 120 illustrates a Nepalese drawing of the deity. A statuette also occurs in the Chinese collection ¹.

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¹ Clark : TLP, II, p. 265.

General

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The conception of Avalokiteśvara is as old as the third century B. C. He was first ushered into existence by the Mahāsāṅghikas, about the time of Aśoka, in their work, entitled, Mahāvastu Avadāna, where he has been characterised as the "Bhagavān who takes the form of a Bodhisattva, whose duty it is to look round (Avalokita) for the sake of instructing the people and for their constant welfare and happiness" ². This Avalokita Bodhisattva no doubt gave rise to the concrete form of Avalokiteśvara, even before the second century A. D. and his images can be traced from the Gupta period onwards. He first appears in the Sukhāvatī Vyūha ³, and a passage in the Kāraṇḍavyūha where he is said to manifest in all possible forms of godhead for the sake of the ignorant and to bring salvation to mankind, accounts undoubtedly for the great number of his forms. As different people belonged to different faiths, this Compassionate Bodhisattva was obliged to assume the shape of all gods of all faiths, nay, even the shape of father and mother. Avalokiteśvara thus is given no less than 108 forms which are painted on the walls of the Macchandar Vahal at Kathmandu in Nepal with inscriptions for the purpose of identification. All these paintings have been copied out by an expert Nepalese artist, and are illustrated in this book in an Appendix. To this a reference may be made for the numerous forms of Avalokiteśvara.