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The Indian Buddhist Iconography, Mainly Based on the Sadhanamala and Other Cognate Tantric Texts of Rituals c9.s1: 2. Vajrayāna Mysticism

The Indian Buddhist Iconography, Mainly Based on the Sādhanamālā and Other Cognate Tāntric Texts of Rituals c9.s1

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English

2. Vajrayāna Mysticism

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Both the Hindus and the Buddhists were alike prolific writers on the Tantras and the literature extant on them is wonderfully extensive. One of the reasons why the word Tantra cannot be defined is that the Tantra comprises an astounding number of subjects along with its own numerous sub-divisions. Whatever was best, whatever was ennobling and whatever was beautiful in India were all incorporated in the Tantra. Tāntric literature contributes a great deal to such sciences as astronomy, astrology, medicine, alchemy, chiromancy, horoscopy, divination, prognosis, Yoga and Haṭhayoga. The Tantra is an admixture of religion, philosophy, science, superstition, dogmas, psychic exercises and mysticism. In this wonderful literature is locked up much of the cultural history of India, and when this literature is intensively studied, it will reveal a great deal of India’s past history and culture, particularly for the period between the 7th century A. D. right upto the Muhammadan conquest. It may here be mentioned that the Tantras, inspite of all their faults, are peculiarly Indian and represent India’s contribution to world culture. A literature of this kind is not found in the history and civilization of any other country in the world.

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To understand the rise of Vajrayāna it is necessary to go back to the original teachings of the Buddha. Lord Buddha prescribed two Yānas in the beginning, namely, the Srāvakayāna and the Pratyekabuddhayāna. The Srāvakas were to hear from a Buddha but they had to wait till the advent of another Buddha for their emancipation. In the meanwhile the Srāvakas could teach, but they could neither attain Nirvāṇa themselves nor help others to attain it. The Pratyekas were eminent men; they could attain Nirvāṇa by their own efforts, without the help of a Buddha but they could not impart Nirvāṇa to others.

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Buddhism continued in this state till the rise of the Mahāyāna properly called, the Bodhisattvayāna. The Mahāyānists dismissed the previous Yānas with the contemptuous epithet of Hīnayāna. They claimed that they could not only attain Nirvāṇa, nay even Buddhahood, with their own unaided efforts, but could also help others to attain these ideals. The distinction between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna is graphically described in the earliest work, the Mahāyānasūtrālaṅkāra, attributed to the famous Buddhist sage Asaṅga.

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Thus there were three Yānas in Buddhism about 300 A. D. which may approximately be taken as the time of Asaṅga. But against these three Yānas there were four schools of philosophy in Buddhism, namely, the Sarvāstivāda (Sautrāntika), the Vāhyārthabhaṅga (Vaibhāṣika), the Vijñānavāda (Yogācāra), and the Śūnyavāda (Madhyamaka). How these four systems of philosophy were distributed amongst the three Yānas is one of the vital questions of Buddhism. The Tattvaratnāvalī of Advayavajra (12th century A. D.) answers this question in a praiseworthy manner. According to this authority "Three are the Yānas, Śrāvakayāna, Pratyekayāna and Mahāyāna. There are four theories; Vaibhāṣika, Sautrāntika, Yogācāra and Madhyamaka. Śrāvakayāna and Pratyekayāna are explained by the theories of the Vaibhāṣikas. Mahāyāna is of two kinds : Pāramitānaya and Mantranaya. Pāramitānaya is explained by the theories either of Sautrāntika, Yogācāra or Madhyamaka. Mantranaya is explained by the theories of Yogācāra and Madhyamaka only". 1

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Thus Mantranaya commences with the most abstruse theories of Śūnyavāda and Vijñānavāda. Advayavajra in one place says,—"Mantranaya is very abstruse. It concerns men who seek emancipation by deep and solemn methods. It is also very extensive owing to the understanding of such theories as the four symbolic representations. Therefore, the author is not fit to explain it". 2 Advayavajra cites for his authority a statement which says that the Mantraśāstra transcends all other Śāstras, because though the Śāstras have the same common object there is no fear of ignorance here. The means are many and the end not difficult of attainment by men whose senses are sharpened to the highest degree. Advayavajra in his Sekanirṇaya accepts the Mahāsukha theory, dilates upon the various stages of the Mahāsukha which according to him is not possible of attainment without the Śakti the embodiment of Karuṇā. 3

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It is hardly necessary now to state that the Buddhism of the Lord Buddha found entirely different expressions as time passed from century to century, so much so, that even if Buddha is reborn, he will not be able to recognize Vajrayāna or the Buddhist Tantra as his own handicraft. Though the Buddha was antagonistic to all sorts of sacrifices, sorcery, necromancy or magic, he nevertheless is credited by some later authorities with having given instructions on Mudrās, Maṇḍalas, Yoga and Tantra, so that prosperity in this world could be attained by his less advanced disciples who seemed to care more for this world than for the Nirvāṇa preached by him. 4 India in Buddha's time was such that any religion which dared forbid all kinds of magical practices, could hardly be popular. A clever organiser as the Buddha was, he did not fail to notice the importance of incorporating magical practices in his religion to make it popular from all points of view. The Tantras and Mantras were all there in the time of the Buddha, but unfortunately, we do not possess any connected account of them except a few works on the Dhāraṇīs in which the Chinese were interested in the beginning of the Christian era. These Dhāraṇīs are only unmeaning strings of words which are said to confer great merit when muttered repeatedly for a number of times. Then comes the worship of Buddha in the Prajñāpāramitā with all the paraphernalia of worship such as are found in the Tantras. Then follow the different recensions of the Prajñāpāramitā, its sūtra, hṛdayasūtra, its Dhāraṇī and Mantra the recitation of all of which confers the benefit of reading the whole of the Prajñāpāramitā scripture. This is a very old work and was translated into Chinese in the second century. A. D. The Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa appears to be a product of the same period and is full of deities, mudrās, maṇḍalas and Tāntric practices, which became systematized in the Guhyasamāja Tantra in circa 300 A. D.

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¹ Adv. p. 14

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² Adv. p. 21

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³ Adv. p. 28

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⁴ Tattvasaṅgraha of Śāntarakṣita "Taduktamantrayogādiniyamād Vidhivat Kṛtāt. Prajñārogyavibhutvādidṛṣṭadharmo-pi jāyote. Śloka 3487

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The Buddhist Tantras belong undoubtedly to Mahāyāna although it is quite possible to infer the presence of magical practices amongst the followers of the early Buddhism.¹ The Tantras were a development of the Yogācāra which was inspired by the Śūnyavāda of the Madhyamakas. Vajrayāna marks a step in advance even of the Yogācāra thought.

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¹ Bhattacharyya : Buddhist Esoterism, p. 24

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The Mahāyāna in the opinion of the Vajrayānists is co-extensive with what they called Dharma which they considered as eternal and to which was given a more important place in later Buddhism, than was assigned to the Buddha himself. The Vajrayānists refer to Śūnya in all their writings, but this is not the Śūnya of the Madhyamakas about which neither existence nor non-existence nor a combination of the two nor a negation of the two can be predicated. To the Madhyamakas both the subject and the object are Śūnya in essence; there is no reality either of the mind or of the external world. Obviously, this is a position which was not agreeable to the Vajrayānists because to them a positive aspect in the Śūnya is absolutely necessary. The Yogācāra or the Vijñānavāda goes a little further and the view of Vijñānavāda as formulated by the school is that when emancipation is obtained it does not become Śūnya, but turn into eternal consciousness. Vajrayāna, on the other hand, is characterized as the ‘Path which leads to perfect enlightenment’ or what they call in Sanskrit ‘Anuttara Samyak Sambodhi’. Vajrayāna literally means the adamantine path or vehicle, but its technical meaning is the ‘Śūnya Vehicle’ where Śūnya is used in a special sense to represent Vajra. It is said,—

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“Śūnyatā is designated as Vajra
because it is firm and sound, and
cannot be changed, cannot be pierced,
cannot be penetrated, cannot be burnt
and cannot be destroyed”. ¹

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¹ Adv. p. 23

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The Mahāyānists differ from the Hīnayānists who are keen on obtaining liberation for themselves by their own efforts. The Mahāyānists, on the other hand, do not care for their own salvation. They are more solicitous about the deliverance of their fellow creatures than about their own. Their compassion for the sufferings of others actuates them to renounce their comforts, merits and even their right to salvation. The ideal of a Mahāyānist finds expression in the Kāraṇḍavyūha where the ideal Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara is represented as refusing his well earned Nirvāṇa until all beings of the world were in possession of the Bodhi knowledge and obtained freedom from worldly miseries. ²

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² Kāraṇḍavyūha, ed. Sāmāśrami, pp. 21-22

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This then may be considered to be the goal of every Bodhisattva, which can be reached by following the tenets either of Śūnyavāda or of Vijñānavāda. The Madhyamaka theory postulated a transcendental state but the Yogācāra added the element of Vijñāna ‘consciousness’ to Śūnya. The Bodhi mind is a chain of Vijñāna which is changing every moment, the Vijñāna of the previous moment giving rise to the Vijñāna of the succeeding moment with the same memory the same conformations and same qualities, and this process goes on till Vijñāna attains liberation.

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Now, this is the sort of emancipation to which the Vijñānavādins led their followers. In this Nirvāṇa, as is already pointed out, there are two elements, Śūnya and Vijñāna. The Vajrayāna which is a direct outcome of the Yogācāra school introduced a new element or the element of Mahāsukha ‘eternal bliss’ to their conception of liberation. The evolution of Buddhism became complete and found full expression in Vajrayāna.

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Vajrayāna introduced many innovations of a revolutionary character. It introduced, for instance, the theory of the five Dhyāni Buddhas as embodiments of the five Skandhas or cosmic elements and formulated the theory of the Kulas or families of the five Dhyāni Buddhas from which deities emerge according to need. It introduced the worship of the Prajñā or Śakti in Buddhism for the first time, and a host of other things including a large number of gods and goddesses, their Sādhanas for the purpose of visualisation, Mantras, Tantras, Yantras, Mudrās, Maṇḍalas, mystic realizations and psychic exercises of the most subtle character.

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It is not possible to trace the origin of Vajrayāna without referring to the Tibetan authorities and ancient Tāntric authors Tārānāth is reported to have said ¹ that Tāntrism existed from very early times and was transmitted in a secret manner from the time of Asaṅga down to the time of Dharmakīrti. Asaṅga who was a brother of Vasubandhu (280-360 A. D.) must have flourished circa 300 A. D. and Dharmakīrti who is not mentioned by the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang but is referred to with great respect by I-Tsing very probably belonged to a period between 625-675 A. D. Thus it can be seen that during a long period of nearly three hundred years Tāntrism was handed down from Gurus to disciples in an occult manner, before its followers could be numerically strong enough to preach their secret doctrines in public. It seems, therefore, reasonable that the Mahāsiddhas such as Saraha, Nāgārjuna, Luipā, Padmavajra, Anaṅgavajra, Indrabhūti and the rest who were masters of Tantra and were great authors and magicians, were the chief agents to boldly and publicly preach their doctrines and exhort people to follow their tenets, doctrines and practices. Their endeavours combined with their unique personal achievements must have converted a considerable number of people to Vajrayāna faith.

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¹ Kern : *Manual of Buddhism*, p. 133

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It is rather difficult to point out the source of information from which Tārānāth drew his inspiration, but a perusal of such Tāntric works as the Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra and the Jñānasiddhi of Indrabhūti makes it possible to infer that it was the Guhyasamāja which was regarded as the most ancient and the most authoritative work of the Tantra school. Padmavajra not only advocates the cause of Tāntric Buddhism but also gives a succinct digest of the work which he calls Śrī-Samāja or the ‘Venerable Samāja’ in his treatise which is still unpublished. Indrabhūti in his Jñānasiddhi acknowledges the Guhyasamāja as the work of highest authority, and gives a summary of some chapters and the topics dealt with in this work. There is thus hardly any doubt that the Guhyasamāja is the original Saṅgīti which introduced for the first time the tenets of Vajrayāna into Buddhism. It is believed to have been introduced in an Assembly of the Faithful by Lord Buddha who is here called Sarva-Tathāgata-Kāya-Vāk-Citta. The Guhyasamāja is written in the form of a Saṅgīti and is considered highly authoritative even now amongst the Vajrayānists, and is regarded as one of the Nine Dharmas of Nepal. This is evidently the first work of Vajrayāna, and Asaṅga quite conceivably may have had something to do with it, as it is commonly believed that the Tantras were introduced by Asaṅga after being initiated by Maitreya the Coming Buddha in the mysteries of Tantra in the Tuṣita heaven. 1

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It cannot be denied that the very beginnings of Buddhism and even when Mahāyāna sprang up in later times a very strict discipline was enjoined on the followers of the faith. On the monks the rules were very strictly put into operation. For instance, they must not have anything to do with women, must not take any forbidden food. Wine, flesh, fish, appetisers and such objects of enjoyment were specially forbidden. The rules were indeed good and were very attractive in the time of the Buddha. But it is wholly absurd to expect obedience to such strict disciplinary measures from all members of the Saṅgha even in the Buddha's life-time, if not for centuries after his disappearance. And after all, what will be the result? Freedom from births and rebirths was only a possibility, and success at best was only questionable! The members of the Saṅgha must have revolted from time to time against the unnatural rules of discipline imposed on them, and party quarrels were already in evidence in the Second Great Council when the Mahāsāṅghikas were expelled from the Orthodox church by the Sthaviras or Elders, because the latter were unwilling to make any concession on the ten minor points of discipline. Rebellion against the rules on broader and more important matters of discipline must have been in existence amongst the monks but they could not create a party of their own which could sufficiently withstand the criticisms of the orthodox section which was sure to go against them and denounce them as heretics. Those monks who saw salvation only in leading a natural life went on devising plans to modify their faith according to their light, probably by writing what is called the original Tantras which were secretly handed down through trusted disciples who could practice their secret rites without let or hindrance. These Tantras are in the form of Saṅgītis and are said to have been delivered by the Buddha in an Assembly of the Faithful. It is in this Saṅgīti form that all new ideas were introduced into Buddhism and the Saṅgītis were very powerful agencies in the introduction of innovations, because Buddhism will not be prepared to accept anything as true unless spoken by the Buddha in a public assembly.

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The orthodox followers of the faith were sure to challenge anything that had not been sponsored by the Buddha, and that seems to be the reason of the great popularity of the Saṅgīti literature. The original Tantras of Buddhism are written in the Saṅgīti form wherein are inculcated doctrines which are diametrically opposed to the original teachings of the Buddha. Easy methods leading to happiness in this world were held out in this literature, easy paths leading to salvation were shown ; great parade was made of the merits accruing from the repetitions of the Mantras, Dhāraṇīs, panegyrics and worship of gods and goddesses. But everywhere any casual reader can detect a desire on the part of the authors to thwart all unnatural rules and regulations imposed on the followers. These disciplinary regulations, as a consequence gradually slackened down one after another, and ultimately when the Vajrayānists gained in power the secret doctrines no longer remained secret, but were openly preached and practised to the great annoyance of the orthodoxy.

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¹ For further information refer to introduction to Guhyasamāja published in the Gaekwad's Oriental Series, (GOS).

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In order to increase the popularity of Vajrayāna the followers included in it every conceivable tenets, dogmas, rites and practices that were calculated to attract more adherents. Thus the leading tenets of Mantrayāna along with Mantras, Maṇḍalas, Mudrās, gods and goddesses were included in Vajrayāna. The earliest work of this class is said to be the Vidyādharapiṭaka which has been characterised by Hiuen Thsang as belonging to the canonical literature of the Mahāsāṅghikas. But this work is not available in original Sanskrit, and it is not possible to say anything with regard to the contents of the text. But with regard to another work the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa the circumstances are different. This extensive work is published in the Trivandrum Sanskrit Series in three volumes. The text forms a part of the ancient Vaipulyasūtras of Mahāyāna and is decidedly the earliest work of Mantrayāna at present available. It is written in the Saṅgīti style in prose and in verse, and in an archaic style closely resembling the Gāthā style, and is written throughout in what is called the Mixed Sanskrit. This work must have been very popular even after the destruction of Buddhism in India as will be evident from the fact that the book was copied only about four hundred years back in a monastery of South India by Ravicandra the head of the Mūlaghoṣa Vihāra.¹ The Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa deals with the formulae and practices which lead both to meterial prosperity and spiritual regeneration, and belongs to the early centuries A. D. but decidedly after the time of the composition of the Amitāyus Sūtra or the Sukhāvatī Vyūha which ushered in the conception of Amitābha and Avalokiteśvara for the first time in Mahāyāna. The Amitāyus Sūtra was first translated into Chinese in a period between A. D. 148-170, and hence the time of its composition may be fixed at about 100 A. D.²

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¹ See introduction to the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa by the editor, Ganapati Shastri.

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² Sukhāvatīvyūha, p p. 1, 28, 32

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The Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa in that case would only be about a hundred years later than the Amitāyus Sūtra. If the Guhyasamāja is accepted as the very first work of the Vajrayāna school it must be admitted that much time must have elapsed between the age of the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa and that of the Guhyasamāja which is put down in circa 300 A. D. ¹

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¹ See introduction to Guhyasamāja, where this date has been discussed.

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The beginning of the Saṅgīti in the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa is in the orthodox style as opposed to the Tāntric style which is decidedly later, and where Bhagavān is introduced in the company of a large number of women instead of an assembly of pious and devout Bodhisattvas only as in the earlier Saṅgītis. The doctrine of the five Dhyāni Buddhas or even their names, Mudrās, Mantras, families, Śaktis, colour and direction are all absent in the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa. Moreover, the Mantras and Mudrās which were later systematized in the Vajrayāna work of Guhyasamāja are found scattered in the body of the text of the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa in a disorganised manner. The Mantras of some of the Dhyāni Buddhas are indeed to be found in the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa although not exactly in the same meaning and form as in the later Guhyasamāja. The Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa further apeaks of Mantrayāna but it does not refer to Vajrayāna which is mentioned for the first time in the Guhyasamāja the Tantra of Secret Communion. Under the circumstances it is possible to call the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa as one of the earliest Mahāyāna Sūtra works on which perhaps is based the outward foundation of the Vajrayāna system. Yet one who willread this work carefully will not fail to notice that it is a product behind which there is a history of development of several centuries. And probably, if ever one can go to the root of Mantrayāna one will have to voice the opinion of Śāntarakṣita and Kamalaśīla that instruction on Tantras, Mudrās and Maṇḍalas were delivered by the Buddha for the benefit of such followers as would care more for their material prosperity than spiritual.

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Vajrayāna thus included in its purview all varieties of attractive tenets, notions, dogmas, theories, rites and practices, and incorporated all that was best in Buddhsim and probably in Hinduism also, and owing to this circumstance Vajrayāna attained great fame and popularity. It satisfied everybody, the cultured and the uncultured, the pious and the sinner, the lower and the higher ranks of the people and devotees. Vajrayāna catered to all tastes with equal efficiency, and it had something useful for everybody. Its universal popularity became an established fact.

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It is difficult to say from what exact locality Tāntrism took its origin. In the Sādhanamālā are mentioned the four Pīṭhas or sacred spots of the Vajrayānists, namely, Kāmākhyā, Sirihaṭṭa, Pūrṇagiri and Uḍḍiyāna. The Tibetan authorities are of opinion that the Tāntric Buddhism originated from Uḍḍiyāna. The location of Uḍḍiyāna thus is important for the history of the Buddhist Tāntric literature.

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Uḍḍiyāna is mentioned in the Sādhanamālā rather frequently. The earliest manuscript of the Sādhanamālā is dated in the Newari Era 285 which is equivalent to A. D. 1165. In this work Uḍḍiyāna is connected with the Sādhana of Kurukullā, Trailokyavaśamkara, Mārīcī and Vajrayoginī. The Sādhanamālā also connects Uḍḍiyāna with such Tāntric authors as Saraha. The Jñānasiddhi of Indrabhūti is stated in the last colophon as having started from Uḍḍiyāna (Oḍiyāna).

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Uḍḍiyāna being one of the four Pīṭhas sacred to Vajrayoginī should be at least near Kāmākhyā (Kāmarūpa), and Sirihaṭṭa (Sylhet) in Assam and it is not unusual to think that all these four Pīṭhas received their sanctity from temples dedicated to Vajrayoginī. Thus Uḍḍiyāna has to be located in Eastern and Assam area.

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In the mediæval period when Tantras flourished, Vaṅga and Samataṭa were the two important centres of culture in Bengal. Vaṅga included the present Dacca, Faridpur and Backerganj districts, while Samataṭa comprised the present Sylhet, Chittagong, Tipperah and Mymensingh districts. That Vaṅga and Samataṭa were the two great centres of culture in Bengal is borne out by the numerous Buddhist and Brahmanical images of the Tāntric type discovered in the whole of this region. Numerous old inscriptions, remains of old buildings, coins and terracottas found in these regions, confirm the conclusion that from the Vaṅga-Samataṭa area radiated different streams of culture to the rest of Eastern India.¹

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¹ Bhattasali : IBBS, intro. p. xxviii.

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In this Vaṅga-Samataṭa region one of the most important places is the Pargaṇā Vikrampur in the Dacca district. Anyone acquainted with the ancient inscriptions of Bengal will be able to appreciate the importance of Vikrampur which is sometimes mentioned as the seat from which imperial charters were issued. There was a great Buddhist monastery here in the reign of the Candras and the Senas. Atīśa Dīpaṅkara, famous in Tibetan history as a great scholar and master of Tāntric lore, is said to belong to the royal family of Vikrampur. Vikrampur is recognized even to-day as one of the foremost places of culture in East Bengal.

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In this Pargana Vikrampur there is a fairly large and well-populated village which is now known by the rather extraordinary name of Vajrayoginī. Round about this village numerous Vajrayāna images have been discovered, and among them may be noticed images of Jambhala, Parṇaśabarī, Vajrasattva and Tārā. The term ‘Vajra’ in Vajrayoginī is also a familiar Buddhist word. Vajra is equivalent to Śūnya. Vajrayoginī is a Buddhist deity which the Hindus borrowed in the form of Chhinnamastā. Thus the name of the village appears to be unmistakably Buddhist. The village must have derived its name from the temple of Vajrayoginī which was in existence in early times.

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It has already been pointed out that the temples dedicated to Vajrayoginī could only be expected at four places, Kāmākhyā, Sirihaṭṭa, Pūrṇagiri and Uḍḍiyāna. Out of these Kāmākhyā and Sirihaṭṭa (Sylhet) still retain their original names. Pūrṇagiri which signifies a hill is not identified yet with certainty. But it is possible to spot the fourth place which is connected with Vajrayoginī. Thus it becomes evident that the present village Vajrayoginī was originally known as Uḍḍiyāna but as the deity Vrjrayoginī became more popular later, the original name gradually disappeared giving place to the name of the deity. Tāntrism of the Buddhists therefore originated here in Uḍḍiyāna-Vajrayoginī, and thence was transmited to the rest of India.¹

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¹ For further details, see the author's article, entitled The Home of Tāntric Buddhism in B. C. Law Commemmoration Volume, Vol. I.

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One of the chief topics dealt with in Vajrayāna is the deity. These deities are a product of psychic exercises of the most subtle character, and are visualized by the worshipper in the course of intense meditation. These psychic exercises are called the Sādhanas a collection of which is published in the Sādhanamālā already referred to. To appreciate Buddhist iconography, therefore, a reference to the Sādhana process of god-realisation is necessary. This process is described in the next section.

Cites (13)