Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c15: Chapter VIII: Buddhist Architecture in Southern India (200 B.C. to 4th Century A.D.)
Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c15
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Chapter VIII: Buddhist Architecture in Southern India (200 B.C. to 4th Century A.D.)
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BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN INDIA
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BUDDHISM, and the art that served it, developed in Southern India in much the same manner as in the rest of the country, but there were certain variations in its form of architectural expression, due mainly to the difference in environment. The religion was communicated to the people of the south by Asoka's personal zeal, as several of his rock edicts testify, but the movement seems to have confined itself mainly to a relatively limited area on the eastern seaboard, towards the lower reaches of the Kistna and the Godavari rivers. Here, on several sites are the remains of extensive Buddhist sanctuaries, some rock-cut, others structural, while a few are a combination of the two modes, but nearly all bear evidences of an early foundation. It is doubtful however whether any of the work now visible is of the Mauryan period, and the real activity most probably began after the break-up of the dynasty, and with the rise of the Andhran supremacy in the south about 200 B.C. The power of the latter was centered in this part of their dominions, as the first Andhran capital, Crikakulam (probably the present Sreewacolum), and also the later capital, Dhanyakataka (Dharamikota or Amaravati), were both on the banks of the Kistna, so that the religion flourished where the population, wealth, and patronage, were greatest. Except in this region, and a short distance along the sea coast to the north of it, Buddhism appears to have made no lasting impression in the south of the peninsula as a whole, where Brahmanism has, from time immemorial, been the prevailing belief.
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There are two sites where rock-cut architecture is in evidence, one at Guntupalle¹ in the Kistna district, and the other on the Sankaran Hills in the Vizagapatam district. The former has been already referred to, because, it is here that the small circular chamber has been found which explains the kind of shelter that was first erected over the stupa—the beginning of the chaitya hall (Plate VIII, Fig. 7). This chamber is 18 feet in diameter, and the domical roof with its circular ribbed framework is 14 feet 9 inches in height, the whole suggesting a primitive hut, its early origin being proved by the design of the doorway, which, on grounds of style, cannot be very much later than that of the Lomas Rishi in the Barabar Hills It has been presumed therefore that this rock-cut retreat at Guntupalle may have been begun as early as 200 B.C. The remainder of this *sangarama* consists of two separate groups of chambers forming a large and a small monastery, the ruins of a brick-built chaitya hall, and many stupas of various sizes most of them rock-cut, although there are a few structural. No real attempt at any coordinated plan seems to have been made in arranging the cells of the monasteries, which are crowded together, probably because other chambers were at a later date inserted in the available intervening spaces. The facades show round-arched doorways, and windows with a projecting dormer archway above, and the radiating spokes of a blind chaitya window filling the space between, the whole approximating the early Hinayana type of vihara decoration, but all rather coarsely executed and displaying little aptitude for this kind of work.
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¹ Annual Report, Arch. Dept, Southern Circle, Madras 1916-17.
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Much the same criticism applies to the other group of Buddhist remains on the Sankaram hills, which, as a whole, may be later in date than the preceding, indeed some portions of the scheme appear to belong to the Gupta period (from c. A.D. 350). As with several of these rock-cut retreats, the plan had to conform to the configuration of the hill-top on which it is situated, so that its arrangement is irregular and scattered.
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The principal remains consist of a large number of monolithic stupas, a series of rock-cut chambers, and the foundations of an extensive structural monastic building. The stupas, of various sizes, are mostly carved out of the out-cropping rock, and are nearly all hemispherical in shape standing on cylindrical drums, their proportions being similar to those in the early Hinayana chaitya halls of the Western Ghats, some of which may therefore be anterior to the Christian era Standing on the summit of the eastern hill, the main establishment at Sankaram comprises a large rock-cut stupa on a square base, with the ruins of a capacious rectangular complex in axial relation to it. The latter was a monastery, with the monks' cells arranged round a large quadrangle, its interior measuring 150 feet by 70 feet, within which were symmetrically disposed three apsidal buildings, evidently chaitya halls. Some of the monolithic stupas here are the largest of their kind, the main one in the front of the monastery, at its circular base being 65 feet in diameter, but its upper part has been demolished. Although there are indications of an early foundation on this site, it seems clear that its most flourishing state was during the Mahayana period, (from c. A.D. 450) as the character of the few surviving pieces of sculpture denotes. There is the quality of coherence in the planning of this part of the scheme, with its well-proportioned monastic buildings confronting the great stupa, but the workmanship itself is on the whole crude and unskilled. The remains at Guntupalle, and also those on the Sankaram Hills, are remarkable more for their antiquarian interest than for their artistic or architectural values
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If, however, the craftsmen in the south of India evinced no special genius in rock-architecture and its appurtenances, on the other hand, as distinct from these, some of the early Buddhist structural monuments, notably the stupas, show not only commendable technical experience in their production, but an artistic perception of a particularly high order. There are the remains of at least eleven such structures, most of them, including the largest, being distributed throughout a circular area of seventy-five miles radius from Ellore, a town situated between the deltas of the Kistna and the Godavari A list is given at the end of the chapter, but [Figure: CONJECTURAL RESTORATION DERIVED FROM THE BAS-RELIEFS OF THE AMARAVATI STUPA, MADRAS PRESIDENCY, CIR. 3RD CENT. A.D.
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Fig 1 Bhaja Small Vihara c 150 B C
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Figs 2-3 Capitals from Gandhara.
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CHAITYA SLAB FROM AMARAVATI SIZE OF THE SLAB 3FT 2IN X 3FT 11IN
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PLAN OF STUPA AT AMARAVATI
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SCALE, 80 FEET TO AN INCH]
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[Figure: Fig. 1 Nasik. Pandulena. Chaitya-hall, c. 1st cent. B.C.]
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[Figure: Fig. 2 Amaravati Stupa. Marble bas-relief, c. 3rd cent. A.D.]
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Fig. 1
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Fig 2
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Sirpur, Madhya Pradesh Temple of Lakshmana, c A D. 800 the most notable were those at Jaggayyapeta, Bhattiprolu, Ghantasala and Amaravati, which, at the beginning, of the Christian era, as examples of the Buddhist style of architecture, could have had few equals. What gave the stupas of the south their imposing appearance and artistic character was that, apart from the grand towering dome, most of them were constructed with an exterior surface of white marble richly carved in bas-relief. Unfortunately time, and the ruthless hand of the spoiler, have dealt hardly with these monuments, and in most instances nothing remains except the foundations with fragmentary portions of the marble casing, but in spite of this almost entire obliteration, it is possible, from the existing records, to gain a very fair idea of their style.
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Although of varying dimensions, the plan and general composition of the stupas of the south were approximately the same, and the description of one will suffice for all. Undoubtedly the finest of these monuments was that at Amaravati, which occupied an elevated site on the south bank of the Kistna river, where was also situated Dhanyakataka, the later capital of the Andhras. In the early years of the Christian era this city was a place of great importance, and towards the east of it was a large area containing the Buddhist sanctuary with the stupa its dominating feature. Of the Andhran capital nothing now remains, and of the towering white monument which was undoubtedly its chief glory, little more than an irregular trench now marks its original position, while such of its marble covering that has survived, has been transferred to museums.
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To form their immense mass, as well as to provide an adequate support for the marble and concrete casing of the exterior, the foundations and body of the stupa were constructed of brick, which, in the earlier examples as at Bhattiprolu and Gudivada were built solid. Later, other expedients were adopted to secure strength and at the same time economy of material, the core of that at Jaggayyapeta having masonry floors stretching across the interior at stages in the height, while that at Ghantasala, perhaps the most scientifically constructed of all, consisted of cross-walls forming compartments in the centre, with other walls radiating towards the circumference like the spokes of a wheel. As usual in all this early brickwork the bricks themselves, some of which appear to have been kiln-burnt, were of great size, not infrequently measuring as much as 24 ins. × 18 ins. × 4 ins. From the proportions of this brick core and the remains of the outer covering, some idea of the dimensions and the general appearance of these southern stupas may be obtained. As to shape and height, that at Bhattiprolu, which was probably one of the first to be built, the low hemispherical mound similar to the large stupa at Sanchi was followed, but in subsequent examples the dome was raised by the base being stilted, to comply with the natural demand for something loftier and of more commanding aspect. In the marble casing, the southern builders had a much more chaste material to deal with than the sandstone covering of the northern type, but in none was marble applied all over the surface of the brick core, only the lower portions were so embellished the remainder being of moulded plaster painted white. Even the upper part of the dome at Amaravati, the most sumptuous of all these stupas, was finished off in the same manner. One of the characteristic features of this class of stupa, and one which was a notable endeavour to enrich considerably their architectural appearance, was the addition, in each example, of a pronounced structural offset to the base of the dome at the four cardinal points. This took the form of a rectangular projection, in the interior of which was accommodated the staircase leading to the upper processional path, as may be seen in one of the stupas in Ceylon, that at Ruwanwaeli (c. 160 B C.). (Plate CL.) Outside and below, this offset was elaborated into a recessed shrine, or altar-piece while above it ended on a level with the upper terrace, to which it formed an extension or platform to provide a base for a row of five slender pillars or stelae. These *aryaka*, or "worshipful columns", free-standing and completely detached, may have symbolised the five Dhyana Buddhas, a reflection as it were, of certain ethereal embodiments dwelling in the skies. As an ornamental attribution to the domical shape of the stupa, this projection, with its graceful pillars, was an admirable device, and gives an unusually artistic distinction to the southern type.
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Records of its plan together with fragmentary accounts of its dimensions have been preserved, but of its shape, proportions, and composition as a whole, little evidence of a material nature exists. From such meagre data it would seem almost a hopeless task to attempt to recreate the appearance of this monument, and thus to recapture some of its former physical and spiritual splendour, were it not for one remarkable fact. It was the practice to include in the carved decorations of the stupa, small duplicate copies of itself in bas-relief, showing clearly and in full detail exactly what the main structure was like. Certain portions of the ornamental scheme consisted of a series of panels in the form of a frieze or dado, each panel containing a conventional but quite definite representation of the stupa, the intention being to combine an appropriate design with the merit of endless repetitions of the same immaculate symbol. With these as a guide a fairly accurate conjectural restoration of the building becomes possible. (Plates XXXV and XXXVI).
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From inscriptions, as well as from the character of some of the sculptural fragments, it is inferred that the Amaravati stupa in its earliest form may have been built about 200 B.C. Later, a very complete reconstruction of the monument took place, and much of its final effect may be assigned to the half century between A D. 150 and 200. Certain of the sculptures indicate that it was begun during the Hinayana period of Buddhism, gradually changing during the progress of the work into the Mahayana form of the belief, as the introduction of numerous representations of the Buddha himself plainly prove. In size it was the largest of all stupas, as the base of the dome on the ground was 162 feet across, while outside and concentric with it was a railing enclosing the *pradakshina patha*, the entire monument thus measuring 192 feet in diameter. Various calculations have been made as to the height, but to be in reasonable proportion with its width, this would be from 90 to 100 feet. Around the dome, some 20 feet from the ground, there was an upper processional path, with the offsets previously mentioned projecting from it opposite each of the entrances, and each displaying the five prominent *aryaka* pillars. There was a balustrade about eight feet high around the terraced path, a feature which probably led early writers to assume incorrectly that there were two railings, an inner and an outer one. This balustrade to the terrace appears to have consisted of uprights which, instead of being joined by bars had a rectangular slab morticed between, on the same principle as a railing excavated on the site of the Vishnu shrine at Besnagar (c. 140 B C.). It was probably on the inner side of these panels that the reproductions of the stupa already mentioned were sculptured in bas-relief, as although at least a score of copies have been preserved, on none of them is this emblem to be seen. It is safe therefore to presume that, as they were not visible in a general view, they must have formed the inner ornamentation of the terrace balustrade.¹
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¹ Dr F. H. Gravely, late of the Madras Government Museum, remarks as follows with regard to the reconstruction of the Amaravati Stupa as illustrated on Plate XXXV. "In his book Amaravati Sculptures in the Madras Government Museum Dr. C. Sivaramamurti confirms (pp. 25-26) Jouveau-Dubreuil's observation on the stupas in this area that "the height of the cylindrical base is just that of an average man, the frieze thus being on eye level," which does not agree with your reconstruction in which it is shown as about three times as high as the approaching pilgrims and well above the top of the rail as is shown for artistic reasons (but incorrectly) in the surviving *chaitya* slab" Apart from the fact that a complete study of the remains of this stupa can only be made by consulting the much more comprehensive collection of material now displayed in the British Museum, such proportions as those referred to above would, if applied, in practice, ruin entirely the graceful elevation of this monument, a solecism which it is hardly possible its designers would be capable of. Further investigation of the mass of material distributed throughout the various museums and libraries seems necessary before the problem can be solved, and a revision of this conjectural restoration attempted. Moreover, it was the custom (which even now prevails) always for the designers of buildings containing rich and delicate workmanship to place this well above the reach of the spectator, for reasons which are obvious to all who chance to see the inquisitiveness of many of those who visit these institutions.
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Elaborate as were the carvings on the stupa itself, this decoration was excelled by the richness of the accessories surrounding its base. These consisted of the ground balustrade, the processional path which it enclosed, and the four entrances The outer railing was about thirteen feet high and composed of the usual arrangement of uprights, connected by three bars, and surmounted by a massive coping, but the entire scheme was so overlaid with ornamentation that its structural framework is hardly recognizable. Here it may be noted that a discrepancy occurs between the carved copies and the monument itself. For, curiously enough, in all the examples of the former, the sculptor probably with an artist's licence, has depicted four bars, while the actual remains show the traditional number of three only. Within the ground balustrades was the ambulatory, a corridor fifteen feet wide with free-standing pillars placed at intervals, each bearing a small stupa or similar sacred insignia. To enter this passage, in place of the *torana* of the northern type, another kind of portal was devised, in which the railing, where it was interrupted by the opening, was projected so as to form an open portico fronted with pillars, and with two pairs of sedent lions on its coping. As with all buildings of a like nature, the Amaravati stupa did not stand alone, but was surrounded by a courtyard which in the course of time became filled with an aggregation of votive stupas of varying sizes. Towards the western side there are the foundations of a structure which may have been a monastery or even some form of prayer hall, but as with several other remains of a somewhat similar order, it is too fragmentary to be identified.
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As already stated this monument to the Buddhist faith has now completely disappeared from the site it occupied, while the surviving marble bas-reliefs have been transferred to the sculpture galleries of Madras and Calcutta, and also to adorn the main staircase of the British Museum, London.² But in its day there can have been few structures in southern India more inspiring or impressive. When it is understood that the whole of its marble surfaces were carved in relief with a fineness approaching that of ivory, some idea of the richness and pulsating effect of the conception as a whole may be realized. In the design and treatment particularly of the figure compositions depicting incidents in the life of the Buddha, there is expressed a verve and abandon which is inimitable. Each scene mirrors some touching manifestation of emotion, while the exquisite subtlety of the modelling is reminiscent of that on an Athenian stele. So vividly poignant are many of the groups they seem to imply that the sculptor was communicating some of his own soul into the people he portrayed as if his chisel and mallet were not mere tools but for the time being formed part of himself. If its architectural appearance was in any degree equal to its plastic embellishment then the Amaravati stupa was indeed a superb achievement.
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² Since removed and re-arranged.
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Yet the question then arises was this great marble production, with all its refinements ever a convincing example of the building art, in a word, was it truly and objectively architectural? By its very nature the tumular formation on which it is founded unless it departs materially from its original intention, can never attain that elegance of proportion or grace of form which are the essentials of a finished work of art In its globular mass there could have been little that was rhythmic, or that could arouse real aesthetic satisfaction It contained no interior hall, so that it served no special functional purpose, it merely formed a grand structural foundation on which to picture in form and colour the story of the Great Teacher. The Amaravati stupa could not stand high therefore as an architectural accomplishment, but there is little doubt that for the sheer beauty of its sculptured enrichment, in which aesthetic excellence, dramatic quality, and religious significance were combined, it was unrivalled
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In spite of its stability of formation and strength of construction, the southern India stupa was not destined to a long life The fragility of its artistic accessories and the value of the material of which it was composed soon made it the prey of the despoiler. Moreover, Buddhism in these parts began to decline as early as the fourth century A D., after which date all such monuments fell into a state of neglect. The end followed rapidly, as is shown by the account of Hiuen Tsiang who passed through here in the year 636, for he remarks that "monasteries had been numerous, but were mostly deserted and ruined."
Buddhist Remains in Southern India
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ROCK-CUT
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| (1) | Guntupalle. 6 m. west of Kamavarapukota in the Ellore *taluk* of the Kistna district, and 28 m. north of Ellore railway station. |
| (2) | Sankaram. 1 m. east of the *taluk* town of Anakapalla on the N. E. line of Madras and S. Mahratta Railway. |
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STUPAS
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| (1) | Jaggayyapeta (Kıstna Dıst.) | diam. | 31½ | feet | (5) | Gudıvada (Kistna Dist. 22 m. N. W of Musulipatam) | diam. | 130 feet |
| (2) | Pedda Maddur (Guntur Dist.) | „ | 44 | „ | (6) | Ghantasala (Kistna Dist. 13 m. West of Musulipatam) | „ | c. 122 „ |
| (3) | Pedda Ganjam (No. 1) | „ | 74 | „ | (7) | Garıkapad (Kıstna Dıst.) | „ | 81 „ |
| | „ „ (No. 2) | „ | 38 | „ | (8) | Amaravatı (Guntur Dıst.) | „ | Stupa 162 feet Railing 192 feet |
| | „ „ (No. 3) | „ | 32 | „ | | | | |
| (4) | Bhattiprolu (Kıstna Dıst.) | „ | Stupa | 132 feet | (9) | Nagarjunikonda (Guntur Dist.) | height | 60 feet |
| | | „ | Railing | 148 feet | | | | |
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Burgess, J *Buddhist Stupas of Amaravatı and Jaggayyapeta* 1887 „ „ *Notes on the Amaravatı Stupa*, Madras 1892. Rea, A. *South Indian Buddhist Antiquities*, Madras 1894