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Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c17: Chapter X: The Gupta Period (c. A.D. 350 to 650)

Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c17

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English

Chapter X: The Gupta Period (c. A.D. 350 to 650)

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TOWARDS the third century A.D., the scarcity of architectural records throughout the greater part of the country is significant of the general conditions that were prevailing at this time It is true that in the north-west and in the Gangetic plain the Hellenic influence on the one hand, combined with the growth of the Mahayana system of Buddhism on the other, kept the northern school alive, and much the same applies to the relatively limited movement in the south, with Amaravati as its centre, but the rest of India was going through a period when the creative faculties of the people were in a state of inactivity. The same century saw the passing of an era, the cultural productions of which, initiated by the Emperor Asoka some five hundred years before, may be referred to as those of the "Primitives". Politically, the end of this phase was emphasized by the almost simultaneous collapse of two powerful dynasties, that of the Andhras (c. 225 A.D.) in the south, and of the Kushanas (c. 236 A D.) in the north. In the sphere of religion there was also a pause, owing to the spiritual fires lit by the Mauryan ruler having evidently burnt themselves out, as testified by the decline of the Hinayana system and the forms of expression that this doctrine had made its own. A somewhat similar condition, it may be noted, arose about the same time in Europe, when the illumination of the Greek genius died out, except for the solitary lamp kindled at Byzantium. And in India, for the time being, the people had reached the limit of their resources so that an interval of stagnation ensued.

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A reaction followed, as also took place in the occidental parallel when the Renaissance awoke the European mind to fresh life and activity, but in India the response was earlier. For the fourth century heralded the dawn of an epoch, which eventually developed into what has been generally accepted as a time of India's greatest intellectual awakening Several forces operating at the same time contributed to produce this high summit of attainment. In the first place, a large portion of the country came under the stabilized rule of the strong and cultured dynasty of the Guptas, whose diplomatic relations when at their zenith, about 400 A.D., extended from the Oxus to Ceylon. The personal patronage and scholarly encouragement of these rulers created an atmosphere favourable to a revival of all forms of human activity, spiritual and material. Secondly, owing to the fact that the Guptas were by religion Brahmanical, and also because the country itself was prepared for it, great stimulation was accorded to Hinduism, the innate faith of the people, so that they were mainly of one mind. And, lastly, the unification of the state under one authority engendered a national spirit to give birth to ideals which transformed every phase of thought and every form of action Among the effects of this fortuitous synchronisation of circumstances was that produced on the arts of the age, and notably on that of architecture In the art of building, two progressive movements of fundamental significance are discernible, one relating to its aesthetic character, and the other to structural procedure. The former marks the begetting of a new sensibility, a change from the mere imitative to the infinitely creative, from the servile copying of meaningless forms expressive of an undeveloped mind and unskilled forces, to a reasoned application of the first principles of architectural composition. The latter records the use for the first time of dressed stone masonry, a pronounced step in the technique of building construction, the introduction of which placed a new power in the hands of the workman. It was when the art was in such a formative state that there emerged the earliest known conception of the Hindu "house of god". And with the appearance of this type of building, architecture composed of stone masonry made its beginning.

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Previously all shrines connected with the Brahmanical faith appear to have been of a very impermanent order. An ancient commentary, the *Satapatha Brahmana*, incidentally describing one of these before the Christian era, states that it comprised two sheds "formed of posts and beams covered with reeds and mats," thus seeming to imply that a very primitive shelter was all that custom ordained in the ceremonial usage of this belief. That such was the practice is shown by the bas-reliefs of Barhut and Sanchi, of the second and first centuries B.C., the fire altars and *naga* tabernacles of the non-Buddhists being either entirely uncovered or merely protected by temporary erections, from which it may be inferred that the service and ritual were ordinarily performed in the open air. (Plate XVIII). What may be the oldest known actual remains of a Brahmanical stone structure are the foundations of a Vishnu shrine at Besnagar (Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh), adjacent to the Heliodorus pillar, and therefore not likely to be later than the second century B.C. The form this building took is not clear. The reason for the almost complete absence of any stable religious edifice, is due to the particular character of the belief upto this period. Consisting mainly in the propitiation, by means of offerings on an altar, of certain abstract powers representing natural forces and phenomena whose presence was everywhere, under such conditions any kind of earthly abode would have been meaningless In the course of time, however, there grew up a desire for something more positive than spiritual essences, a need for some material interpretation of the religious ideal. And so by degrees there developed a demand for an embodiment of these impersonal powers, which, early in the Christian era crystallized, and, before the fourth century A D., the object of worship began to assume a visible form, usually a graven image.

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This anthropomorphic conception of a deity naturally called for some habitation, and so a structural shrine came into being. The various stages through which the embryo Hindu temple passed are common to the growth of such edifices, first a leafy bower, then a reed hut, and afterwards a cella of wood and brick. Eventually, in the Gupta period it appears as a sanctum of stone, called the *garbha-griha*, literally "wombhouse", a small chamber, square in plan, its interior walls perfectly plain and without any other opening except the doorway, the darkness inside providing the requisite atmosphere of solemn mystery. Within was placed the effigy of the god. Contrasting with the bare walls of the interior, the outer side of the doorway was often richly carved, and in front of this was usually a shallow porch, in the later Gupta examples enlarged into a pillared portico. Such a beginning was in accordance with that of more than one civilization, the earliest sacred buildings consisting of a flat-roofed chamber with a porch in front, Egyptian and Greek temples both showing evidences of having been derived from similar rudimentary origins. In India, on the same principle, some of the first Brahmanical sanctuaries have either flat roofs, or appear to have been evolved from a flat-roofed prototype, and it was not long before the other essential features, such as the pillared vestibule, were added. These early Hindu sanctuaries are comparatively small structures, in size much inferior to the monumental religious edifices which rose later, so that it seems more appropriate to classify them, not as temples, but as shrines or chapels. They are obviously only a beginning, but they are important, because they were the nucleus of the temple proper, being in themselves merely a prelude to such a structure in its more matured form. A number of small sanctuaries of this order, the earliest in the country to be built of dressed stone, have been found in various places in Central India, and there are fragments of others, further afield, which seem to show that buildings of a similar type were fairly common in the Gupta dominions. Included with these stone-built structures is a series of excavated chambers, having structural porticos attached, but all clearly in the same tradition. (Plate XLI, Fig. 1).

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The supremacy of the Guptas lasted only for 160 years, but the particular style of art associated with this dynasty was produced over a considerably longer period, the vitality of the movement giving it sufficient momentum to make its influence felt even in mediaeval times. These Gupta buildings date from the fourth to the sixth centuries, the earlier examples, besides being in accordance with the generical formula of a flat roof and pillared portico, possessed other distinctive features. Among the specific characteristics are (*a*) the shape of the pillars and capitals, (*b*) the treatment of the inter-columnation, (*c*) the system of continuing the architrave as a string-course round the entire building, and (*d*) the design of the doorway. The principal examples of this type now remaining are as follows: a temple at Tigawa in the Jubbulpore district; the Narasina and the other shrines at Eran (N.E. of Bhilsa); Temple No. 17 at Sanchi; a temple at Bhamara in Nagod State; a temple at Nachna in Ajaigarh State; and a group of rock-cut sanctuaries at Udaigiri near Bhopal. Of these the most typical is the Vishnu temple of Kankali Devi at Tigawa,¹ which, in spite of later additions to its frontage, still retains much of its original appearance (Plate XLII, Fig 1).

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¹ Cunningham's *Reports*, Vol. X, p. 41.

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As with all the buildings of the group, the dimensions of the Tigawa temple are unassuming, the sanctum being a square structure of 12½ feet side enclosing a cella of eight feet diameter, while the porch projects in front to the extent of seven feet. A feature of the portico pillars in several of these temples is the intercolumnation, the middle interval being wider than those on either side. The facade owes its character almost entirely to the design of its pillars, which, besides forming the main elements of its frontage are also fully representative of what may be termed the early Gupta "order". Each consists of (*a*) a massive abacus surmounted by a device of lions, (*b*) a capital resembling a broad conventional vase, (*c*) a short shaft of many sides, and (*d*) a plain square pedestal A glance will show that in spite of the greatly diminished height this form of pillar is a direct descendent of the Vishnu column at Besnagar of five centuries earlier, and the lion motif itself is a link with the still older monoliths of Asoka The other outstanding decorative feature of the Tigawa temple is the doorway to the cella, which also displays in its treatment certain historical connexions. Its expanded overdoor is a survival of the timber age when a wooden beam was placed over the opening and extended beyond the tops of the side posts, to provide additional strength and stability. But it is the shape and subject of the panel at the upper angle of the doorway, that have the most significance. Here is seen an adaptation of the Yakshini motif which festoons the projecting architrave to the Buddhist torana, but transmuted in the Gupta temple to suit the Brahmanical text. Instead of the subject being a dryad embracing a tree as in the earlier composition it becomes an allegory of the holy waters of the Jumna and the Ganges, with a river goddess standing on a tortoise on one side symbolising the Jumna, and on the other side a similar figure standing on a crocodile, or *makara*, representing the Ganges. This device is a prominent one in the doorway design of many Hindu temples, but only in those of the early Gupta style is it placed in the upper angle. In all buildings of the subsequent period it is carved on the base of the doorpost.

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It is instructive to compare the Brahmanical temple at Tigawa with the Buddhist temple (No. 17) at Sanchi,² both of which were probably erected in the first half of the fifth century, and are situated not 150 miles apart. (Plate XLII). Their proportions are practically the same, and they both conform to the general characteristics of the Gupta style. Where they differ externally is in the design of the pillars which, in the Sanchi example as would be expected, are in the Buddhist tradition descended from Asoka's bell and lion monoliths. But the difference between these two buildings is something more than one of form, significant though this may be. Each is a statement of a separate experience. On the one hand the Sanchi temple, although clearly a departure from any previous architectural conception, is a precipitation of several ancient traditions displaying the classical art inspired by Buddhist thought in its final mood. There is much to admire in the manner of its composition, in the application of the principles of good building, and the adjustment and interdependence of its parts to form a coordinated whole. But in spite of its original appearance, it is not the beginning of something new, it is in itself an end, the last expiring effort of the "primitives", revivified for the moment by an infusion of the new spirit around it Nowhere is this shown more plainly than in the bell capital, an arid attempt at a refinement of the full-blooded campaniform capital of the Asokan monoliths. On the other hand the Tigawa example displays no marked architectural perceptions, there are crudities in its composition, but its forms ripple with a refreshing vitality, and pulsate with the nervous energy of exuberant youth. These Gupta shrines are something more than a symbol, they reflect that "sudden glory" which comes with a fresh inspiration, the capital, or "order", providing the keynote No longer does this present the whitening bones of a dead tradition as in the Sanchi bell example, but a living, growing organism. For the Gupta capital is the *purna kalasa*, the "bowl of plenty", typifying a renewed faith, the water nourishing the plant trailing from its brim, an allegory which has produced the "vase and flower" motif, one of the most graceful forms in the whole range of Indian architecture.

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² *Guide to Sanchi*, Marshall, pp. 19 & 105.

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Fig 1 View from South-west

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Fig. 2 Passage (pteroma) round exterior

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Aihole, Dharwar Durga Temple, A D 500

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[Figure: Fig. 1 Aihole, Dharwar: Durga Temple, portico, c. A.D. 500]

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[Figure: Fig. 2 Badami, Bijapur Dist.: Rock-cut Temple No. 2; 6th cent. A.D.]

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[Figure: Fig 1 Bādāmi . Rock-cut Temple No 1, portico , 6th cent A.D]

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[Figure: Fig. 2 Ajanta · Facade of Chaitya-hall No. 19 , c. 6th cent. A.D]

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[Figure: AJANTA XII ① AJANTA XI ② AJANTA VII ③ AJANTA VI LOWER STOREY ④ ⑤ AJANTA VI UPPER STOREY DIAGRAMS SHOWING DEVELOPMENT OF ROCK-CUT MONASTERIES 2ND CENT BC - 7TH CENT A.D. CHAITYA HALL XIX AJANTA 6TH CENT AD]

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In any account of the art of the Gupta period, a strict adherence to chronological order would have placed the excavated chambers at Udaigiri¹ first, as one of them bears an inscription stating that it was produced in the reign of Chandragupta II, who ruled from A.D. 382 to 401, thus making these as early as the end of the fourth century. But as they are partly rock-cut and partly stone built they are not so typical as the structural examples described above. There are in all nine of these cells in a sandstone hill two miles from Besnagar, and five from Sanchi in the vicinity therefore of an art centre of notable historical reputation. Beginning with what is usually referred to as a "false cave" (No. 1), their numbering most probably follows the sequence in which they were excavated. With the exception of the last of the series known as the "Amrita cave" (No. 9), the rock-cut interiors of the shrines are of little consequence, as they are plain rectangular cells, similar to the structural examples. Their architectural value lies in the treatment of the rock facades, and particularly in the design of the pillared porticos that were built in front of them. As far as the combination of these two technical methods permitted, the general style of each is in the early Gupta tradition. The only one of the series with its frontage fully intact is the "False Cave", so called because it has been adapted out of a natural ledge of rock, which has been made to form both the roof of the cella and its portico. It is a primitive effort, but at the same time it carries out the conventions of the style, with its flat roof, massive string-course, and row of four pillars with the wider intercolumniation in the middle. There is character in the shaping of the pillars, with their capitals of the "vase and foliage" pattern, for, although heavily proportioned, they are in keeping with the rugged strength of the whole. The importance of this "False Cave" lies in the fact that it is probably the earliest Brahmanical sanctum that has survived. (Plate XLI, Fig. 1).

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¹ Cunningham's *Reports*, Vol. X, p. 41.

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As the work of producing these shrines proceeded, so they became larger and more ornate, the cells were made more spacious, and the simple porches began to assume the appearance of pillared halls. A stage in this process is seen in the "Bina cave", No 3, where, in addition to the four pillars forming the front of the portico, there are two smaller pillars on either side. No. 9, known as the "Amrita cave" denotes a further step, as it is the largest, and probably the latest, of the entire series. It has a cella nearly twice the size of the others, which measures 22 feet by 19 feet 4 inches, and four massive pillars some eight feet high have been left in the centre, all hewn out of the rock. The doorway is also richly carved in the rock, and outside was a long structural portico with three openings, to which a pillared hall was afterwards added, the whole forming a composition 27 feet square. Both the plastic and architectural treatment of the Amrita example show that it is the repository of several art traditions. In the first place, in the design of the rock-cut capitals of the inner chamber, the carvers have reproduced something from the Gautamīputra colonnade at Nasik of the first century B.C., as shown by the small fawn-like animals which enrich its fluted bell. Secondly, for the doorway they seem to have received some inspiration from the Sanchi toranas, as parts of it are a memory transcript, incised in the rock, of this type of gateway. And thirdly, the pillars of the portico are of the Gupta pattern with vase-shaped capital. Although this sanctuary contains contributions from these three different sources, yet throughout it displays a quality and temper inherited from the Buddhist art of the Sunga period, thus showing that the Besnagar craftsmen still retained their skill under the Guptas, although four centuries had passed. The fine rock-cut figure compositions, which form part of the shrines are further evidence of the persistent vitality of this artistic school.

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The remaining shrines at Udaigiri are an elaboration of the principles applied in the "False Cave", together with a refinement of the treatment generally, as the work of producing them progressed. Added to these examples, in most instances their rock-cut facades, especially the doorways, are richly carved, and in conjunction with them are certain separate sculptured figure-compositions of a high order. The spirited design and experience of form that the rock-carvings display, when compared with the rudimentary technique of the masonry, are an indication of the uneven evolution of the arts at this particular period. While the carved reliefs show every evidence of maturity, the building art, to judge by these porticoed cells, seems still in its infancy, as they are little more than a step removed from the rustic shelter on the hill-side, with its lean-to roof in front of a natural hollow. Yet, in spite of this lingering archaism, a considerable amount of fine workmanship was expended on their production. Several of the doorways are of the kind already referred to as typical of the Gupta style, with the expanded overdoor and intricately moulded jambs all carved on the prepared surface of the rock. On each side were sculptured in high relief figures of *dwarpalas* to guard the entrance, as well as other mythical beings. In the design of the pillars of the structural portion there are signs of careful thought and patient handling, the pillars being all of the Gupta "order", having square pedestals and octagonal shafts surmounted by a vase-shaped capital.

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Slightly later than any of the foregoing are two buildings in the early Gupta style, which have much in common. These are a Siva temple at Bhamara² near Nagod, and the Parvati temple at Nachna³ near Ajaigarh, both probably erected before 500 A.D. Each is built on the principle of the flat roof, with pillared portico, and although differing in some parts of their arrangements, (for instance the Nachna example has an upper story), their proportions are very similar, and their plans are much alike. The Parvati temple is the simpler scheme, and consists of a square building of 15 feet side, containing a cella 8½ feet in diameter, the whole standing on a square platform 35 feet wide. This platform in both buildings is extended on the front side to an additional 12 feet where it is approached by a short flight of steps. Both temples are much ruined but each had a processional path around the outside of the sanctum, that at Nachna being an enclosed passage, while at Bhamara it was an open promenade. In each case the doorways to the shrine are of the typical Gupta design with their overhanging lintels, figure panels in the upper corner, and ornate treatment generally. But the carved decoration was by no means confined only to the entrances, the Parvati temple contains at the sides some panels with vigorous figure compositions, while there are few buildings for their size that could have displayed such choice embellishment as that on the stones lying around the Bhamara sanctum. For spirited floral scrolls and crisp modelling, the chiselled patterns on its lintels have their equal only in the brushforms of the Ajanta frescoes, each medium expressing that quality of exultation and movement which only appear under the most tranquil and favourable conditions.

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² *Memoirs, Arch. Sur. Ind.*, No 16

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³ Cunningham's *Reports*, Vol XXI, pp 95-97.

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The early Gupta style reached its culmination in a superb little structure at Deogarh in the Jhansi district, a Siva temple probably dating from early in the sixth century.¹ In this example is seen an effort to throw off the rudimentary and rather ineffective convention of the flat roof, and to obtain some appearance of height. Accordingly the upper part of the sanctum was carried upward in the form of a pyramidal tower, but unfortunately the summit is too ruined for its detailed shape to be made out, although its height when entire could not have been less than 40 feet. This tower-like shrine which at its base is 18 feet side, is further elevated by being placed in the centre of a square terrace five feet high, with a flight of steps in the middle of each side. In the ingenuous disposition of the pilasters, panels, and coping, on the sides of the substructure there is a suggestion of the railing around a Buddhist stupa. But the most notable feature of the Deogarh temple is the arrangement of its portico. Instead of only one of these, as is usual in front of the entrance to the sanctum, there are four of them, one projecting from each side of the central structure, each with a flat roof supported on a row of four pillars, with the customary wider intercolumniation in the middle. All the porticos have fallen but the general appearance of the building is shown in the diagram of a conjectural restoration in Plate XLI, Figure 6 In each part of the temple there is the same exuberance of carving as in the previous examples in this style, the pillars being elaborately chamfered, and the capitals of the vase and foliage type lavishly decorated with pendent scrolls.

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But the most ornate of all these features is the doorway, which although designed in the mode of the period, is so charged with decorative additions that the principle of the projecting lintel, so characteristic of the style, is almost obscured. The underlying motif takes the form of a pavilion archway with pilasters on each side supporting an architrave of dormered gables, the whole being skilfully adapted to frame the doorway. This ornamental archway bears some relation to a style of semi-secular architecture found in the backgrounds of the mural paintings which about the same time were being produced at Ajanta. The structures, which probably suggested the introduction of these architectural elements into the sculpture and painting of the Gupta period, were apparently pavilions of a portable kind having wooden pillars, turned on a lathe, and lacquered and coloured, to be set up like tents for the accommodation of the imperial court as it moved about the country. The regal nature of this equipage, with its graceful lines caught the eye of the artist who was prompt in applying it in his more lasting decorative schemes In the Deogarh temple the ornate character of the doorway is repeated in the sculptured treatment of the three remaining sides of the building. But on these portions the central feature of each takes the form of a sunk panel or false window, five feet high and four feet wide, framed in an architectural setting of pilasters and architrave, and containing a profoundly moving religious figure composition carved in high relief (Plate XLI, Figs, 2 and 3). Here it is possible to see one of the purposes of the projecting porticos, as they protect these icons, and aid in consecrating them as a kind of altar-piece. When com-plete, this building was unquestionably one of rare merit in the correct ordering of its parts, all alike serving the purpose of practical utility, yet imbued with supreme artistic feeling. Few monuments can show such a high level of workmanship, combined with a ripeness and rich refinement in its sculptural effect as the Gupta temple at Deogarh.

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In addition to the temples there are other productions of this period of an architectural character. These are several free-standing pillars chief among which are the Budhagupta monolith at Eran,¹ and the famous Iron Pillar at Delhi.² The former, which bears a date corresponding to A.D. 484-5, is a graceful composition with a faceted shaft surmounted by a lion abacus, but the whole effect is marred by the mean fluting and attenuated proportions of its bell capital. The object of the column is to support aloft a statuette of the god Vishnu, a well-executed work dignified by an expansive radiated halo As it is 43 feet high it equals in this respect the pillars set up by Asoka, but it has not the massive simple grandeur of those classical models.

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¹ Cunningham's *Reports*, Vol X, p. 81.

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² Journ. Roy. As Soc. 1907, pp. 1-18.

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The other example, the Iron Pillar at Delhi, is an entirely different conception, and, in several respects is unique (Plate X). Prepared to the order of king Kumaragupta[^\dagger] about A.D. 415, it was originally erected on a site near Mathura, being removed to its present position in the Kutub Mosque at Delhi in mediaeval times. Its total height, including the capital, is 23 feet 8 inches and it is composed of pure malleable iron, the entire weight exceeding six tons The high technical skill required to forge such an object which, until recently, would have taxed the resources even of the largest foundries is a remarkable tribute to the genius and manipulative dexterity of the Indian iron-worker. When first set up it bore on its summit an image of a *garuda*, the "vehicle" or attribute, of Vishnu, which has now disappeared, but even without this feature the design of its superstructure, although outwardly little more than a pleasing combination of conventional mouldings, has interesting implications. This superstructure may be resolved into three separate parts, the uppermost being the square abacus, identified as a refined adaptation of that which usually surmounts the Gupta "order", a shape later to become universal whenever an ornamental throne or pedestal was required. Below is a melon-shaped member, in which it is possible to recognise a phase in the evolution of the "cushion" or "vase" motif, to be used with such effect at a slightly later date. And, lastly, there is the campaniform capital, marking one of the last appearances of the Persepolitan attribution, here however still retaining the vigorous outline and rounded fluting of the original model. Although, in some of its details there is a subtle grace, the Iron Pillar as a whole is not a work of art of exceptional merit, but as a landmark denoting the dividing line between the age of primitivism and the beginning of the early mediaeval era, it is important.

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At this time when the building art was largely in a state of indetermination, seeking direction, it is only natural that certain structures were produced which it is not easy to classify. One of these at least is of sufficient interest to deserve reference. This example, probably dating from the fifth century, consists of the remains of a pillared portico in the Mukandwara Pass of Kotah State, and is composed of immense blocks, suggesting such a giant handling of stone that only its precise cutting and fine carving save it from being characterised as cyclopean. While there is something not unattractive in the ingenuous chamfering which breaks up the mass of the pillar shafts—a decorative treatment remotely related to the Buddhist railing pillar—the fabric in its entirety has a definitely archaic flavour, recalling that massive strength and dexterous simplicity of the "sturdy Dorians" in Greek architecture. It shows little knowledge of construction, the only problem solved being that of placing one stone on another, the first step in the art of masonry building. Yet this method was typical of the Gupta style, when it was the practice to employ blocks of stone much larger than the relatively small size of the building justified But economy of material, without loss of strength and stability, is a matter of experience, which was yet to be gained. The stones in the Gupta shrines are, as a rule, well cut with the surfaces finely dressed, but there was no mortar, all the masonry being of the dry order. An experiment in jointing stonework, however, was made in the construction of the Deogarh temple, as here the blocks were held together with iron dowels.

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Banerji, R. D. *Arch Sur. of Ind.*, Memoir No 16. Cunningham, A. *Archaeological Survey of India*, Report Vol. X Havell, E B. *Zenith of Indian Art, Ostasiatische Zeitschrift*, Ap -June, 1914 Smith, V. A *Indian Sculpture of the Gupta Period A. D.* 300-650. *Ostasiatische Zeitschrift*, Ap.-June, Vol III, 1915

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