Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c18: Chapter XI: Chalukyan Architecture: Its Beginnings at Aihole and Badami (c. 450 A.D. to c. 650 A.D.)

Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c18

Language: English

Chapter XI: Chalukyan Architecture: Its Beginnings at Aihole and Badami (c. 450 A.D. to c. 650 A.D.)

c18.1

CHALUKYAN ARCHITECTURE: ITS BEGINNINGS AT AIHOLE AND BADAMI

ALMOST at the same time that the Gupta shrines were being built in Central and Northern India, another and apparently independent movement, but having much the same implications, was making itself felt in a part of the Deccan. This was inspired and put into effect through the initiative and energy of the rising race of the Early Chalukyans, a power which began to assert itself in Southern India about the fifth century A.D. It was clearly the result of an enthusiasm which was religious in origin and in intensity of purpose. The first efforts of the Chalukyans are represented by a considerable group of stone-built shrines and temples at Aihole,¹ now a somewhat decayed village in the Bijapur district of Dharwar. The majority of these structures are Brahmanical, although a few are Jain, and all appear to have been erected in the period between A.D. 450 and 650. With the structural edifices at Aihole may be included a series of rock-cut pillared halls at the neighbouring town of Badami, executed in the latter half of the sixth century. So early, and so informative are they, especially at Aihole, that one is tempted to presume that here, on this relatively obscure site, the Hindu structural temple, not only took an introductory form, but, as far as this part of India is concerned, had its beginning. For in several of the examples it is possible to see the first emergence of the temple structure, if not its actual birth and builders were seeking for a formula which would fulfil the requirements of the creed.

c18.4

¹ *Arch Sur Rep 1907-8*, p. 189.

c18.5

Mainly on account of its primitive appearance the temple known as Ladh Khan is considered to be the oldest building of the Aihole group, and has accordingly been assigned to the middle of the fifth century. There are others of much the same style, such as that named Kont-gudi, as well as two shrines in its immediate vicinity, but Ladh Khan is the larger and more significant. Partially obscured and defaced by modern accumulations, the general appearance of this structure as it now stands, is unimpressive. In shape it is a comparatively low, flat-roofed building, its plan being a square of fifty feet side, and over all rises a small supplementary story of later date. Three of its sides are completely enclosed by walls, two of which are relieved by perforated stone grilles, but from its fourth side, forming its eastern front, there is projected an open-pillared porch. The interior consists of a hall, which resembles a pillared pavilion, as it contains two square groups of columns, one within the other, thus providing a double aisle all round. A large stone effigy of a bull (*nandi*) almost fills the central bay, while at the far end is the cella, not, as is usual, a chamber leading off the main hall, but built within it, and against the back wall. With the exception of the Siva symbol of the *nandi*, which has been put into the building afterwards, for as the dedicatory block shows, it was erected as a Vishnu temple, it is clear that, as far as the body of the structure is concerned, this arrangement is original, no part of it is an afterthought, none of it was subsequently added. Yet it is also just as clear that, for the purpose for which it was constructed, it was not by any means a suitable building for the ends it had to serve, as it fulfils few of the conditions necessary for the performance of the Brahmanical ritual. The reason for such inappropriateness is that, although it was intended for a temple, it was an adaptation of another structure devised for an entirely different object. This was an edifice planned for secular and civic use, the *santhagara*, the village mote, moot, or meeting hall.

c18.6

The temples at Aihole consist of some seventy buildings, about thirty of which are contained inside a walled and bastioned enclosure, while the remainder, owing to want of space, are disposed within its vicinity. It is, in fact, a town of temples. Unlike the contemporary Gupta structures, which are distributed over a wide area, the Early Chalukyan group is confined to this one locality, so that it was a comparatively restricted movement, but one of great vigour and promise. At Aihole, for the space of two centuries, the art of temple building must have been conducted with fervour and energy, when it finally ceased, the centre of religious activity being transferred, in the middle of the seventh century, to the town of Pattadakal, some fifteen miles distant, where a later phase of the style ensued (Chapter XIV). As with the Gupta temples those at Aihole have flat or slightly sloping roofs, but the latter in some instances are surmounted by a small upper story or tower (*sikhara*), which appears to have been subsequently added. The chief difference between the two types lies in the treatment of the structure in front of the sanctuary, which, in the Dharwar group, even in the earliest examples, assumed the character of a pillared assembly hall, or *mandapa*. The addition of this feature to the Aihole structures implies a step forward in the development of the completed temple design. None the less, judging from the varied forms of these Dharwar buildings, it is clear that no definite decision had yet been reached as to the type of structure most suitable for Brahmanical worship. As will be seen, it seems as if both priests and builders were seeking for a formula which would fulfil the requirements of the creed.

c18.7

No examples of the *santhagara* have survived, but it appears as a very early institution in Indian village life.² From descriptions in the ancient texts, it was a structure specially built in order to enable the elders of the community to meet and settle matters relating to their social and economic intercourse. It was probably the only public building in the village, and took the form of a flat-roofed open edifice without walls, so planned that the deliberations within might be visible to, and shared by, the public outside. Persons taking part in the proceedings were seated in a specified order, with the president occupying "the chair" in the middle. It is not difficult to trace these conditions in the temple of Ladh Khan. The pillars of the open exterior are still visible, but are now converted into pilasters, as the [Figure: Fig. 1 Ajanta, Chaitya-hall No. 26, c. 6th cent. A.D.]

c18.8

² *Cambridge History of India*, Vol. I, p. 176.

c18.9

[Figure: Fig. 2 Ellora · Facade of Visvakarma Chaitya-hall, c. 7th cent. A.D.]

c18.10

[Figure: DIAGRAMS SHOWING EARLY CONSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE ① TEMPLE OF PARASURAMESVARA BHUBANESWAR, ORISSA, (8TH CENT) ② SMALL RUINED TEMPLE AT BADAMI, CIR 600 A.D.]

c18.11

[Figure: Fig. 1 Ruined Temple above Bādāmī, c. 600 A.D.]

c18.12

[Figure: Fig. 2 Paṭṭadakal : Temples of Kāsināth and Mallikārjuna ; c. 740 A.D.]

c18.13

[Figure: Fig 1 Pattadakal Temple of Papanath ; c. 680 A D]

c18.14

[Figure: Fig 2 Pattadakal Temple of Virupaksha ; c. 740 A D]

c18.15

spaces between have been filled in with masonry to provide seclusion for worship. Such an alteration shut out the light, so that the perforated windows became necessary. The seating arrangements, being no longer required in the main hall of the temple, were omitted, but were retained in the portico, as a concession to the public, like those in a church porch. It seems not improbable that this rather distinctive type of stone bench, or podium, the relics of which enclose the portico, was continued right round the mote-hall for the use of the members of the assembly while its sloping back, acting at the same time as a seat-rest, formed a dwarf wall to keep out animal intruders. But the most difficult problem was to decide on a suitable place in the scheme for the "holy of holies", which was solved by the simple expedient of inserting it as an additional interior chamber against the end wall. (Plate XLIV).

c18.16

Apart from the extemporaneous nature of its composition, the Ladh Khan temple contains several notable features. Although the plain square shaft and bracket capital is a characteristic of its style, an elaboration of this occurs in the pilasters placed at each of the exterior angles of the building. The shafts of these taper slightly at their upper ends, above which is a "cushion" capital with an expanded floral abacus supporting the bracket. This is probably the first appearance of a particular form of capital of great importance, because it afterwards became almost universal in the architecture of Southern India, representing, as it does, the "order" of the Dravidian style. Another element in the temple, and one already alluded to, is the stone seat of the portico, with its sloping back-rest. Here is seen the beginning of the *asana*, which developed into an ornamental feature used with considerable effect in the entrance halls of many mediaeval temples. The construction of the roof is peculiar, and is the original of a system which continued to be practised for a long period, for even as late as the thirteenth century it is found in the Chalukyan-Hoysala temples of Mysore (Chapter XXIX). It consists of large flat slabs, near the joints of which grooves were chiselled, with a corresponding ridge at the edges. Covering the entire length of the joints, long narrow stones were placed fitting into the grooves, on the principle of ordinary roofing-tiles, but to a much larger scale. In the shape of these stone ribs there is, however, a suggestion of a timber origin, while the heavy overhanging eaves of the roof which, in some instances also show ribs underneath, have been derived from thatch. That the temple of Ladh Khan was the near product of a primitive movement is shown by the nature of its masonry, which is composed of great archaic looking blocks dressed to level beds and placed one upon the other without any cement or similar binding composition. The walls are of disproportionate strength, yet not uncouth, although denoting a wasteful use of material, significant of inexperienced workmanship. The character of the portico is typical of the style. The prodigious shafts and ponderous brackets of the pillars, and its low beetling cornice are expressive of exultant strength, while the carving on its exterior has an elemental, almost savage beauty, reminiscent of that on the buildings of the Anglo-Saxons, which has the appearance of having been produced by the means of an axe. As in all the workmanship at Aihole, it is stark, strong, and enduring, the utterance of a robust and vigorous people having great potentialities but, at present, of undeveloped powers (Plate XLV).

c18.17

In direct contrast with the architectural formation of the foregoing, but at the same time illustrating another experimental stage in the development of the temple structure, is the Durga temple at Aihole (Plates XLVI, Fig. 2, and XLVII Fig. 4, also XLIV and XLV). This example is a Brahmanical version of the Buddhist chaitya hall, adapted to suit the service of the former creed. It has already been established that Buddhist buildings of a similar type were not uncommon in many parts of India in the early centuries of the Christian era, while there is an actual example at Ter, not far distant from Dharwar (Chapter IX). The Durga temple, which most closely follows this model, was probably erected during the sixth century, and is an apsidal-ended structure measuring externally 60 feet by 36 feet, but in addition there is a large portico on its eastern front 24 feet in depth, so that its entire length is 84 feet. Raised on a particularly high and heavily moulded plinth or stereobate, the topmost tier of its flat roof is 30 feet from the ground; over the apse a short pyramidal tower, or *sikhara*, has been subsequently added. among other notable features in the design of the Durga temple is its peripteral exterior, or pteroma, a passage formed by the colonnade of a verandah which is carried right round the building, and joins up with similar pillars comprising the portico. This portico is approached by two flights of steps, one on each side of the front, and inside it is a vestibule, also pillared, within which is the entrance doorway. The interior consists of a hall 44 feet long, and divided by two rows of four pillars into a nave and two aisles, with an apsidal shaped cella, recalling the naos of the Greeks, at its far end, the aisles are continued round this cella as a processional passage. Light is obtained both for the central hall and for this passage by means of stone grilles, those at the sides being square and those in the apse circular in shape, and each is filled with an elegant carved and perforated pattern. The roof of the nave is raised higher than that of the side aisles, so that in almost every particular, not only in the treatment of its parts, but in the nature of the building as a whole, it is a literal re-statement of the Buddhist chaitya hall.

c18.18

Another temple of the same kind is that of Huchchimalligudi, a smaller and simplified form of the preceding, for it has no apsidal end, and is without a peristylar verandah. As with the other examples at Aihole, to it has also been added a *sikhara* of later date. Unlike the richly carved Durga temple, it has a relatively simple exterior, the plainness of its walls being relieved by one pattern only, a singularly elegant motif of a floral vase, repeated in panels along the *asana* or sloping surface of the portico. The interior is a rectangular hall divided into nave and aisles by two rows of pillars, three on each side, with a processional passage carried around the square sanctum. Its plan is quite ordinary except that it contains one additional feature. This is a vestibule, or *antarala*. Hitherto in no temple has there been found any sign of an intermediate chamber in front of the cella, but in Huchchimalligudi something of the kind is beginning to appear, rather a primitive affair, but showing that some form of "pronaos" was becoming necessary. It consisted in this instance of introducing a masonry screen, with a doorway in the centre, between the two innermost pillars of the nave, thus providing an intermediate compartment between the main hall and the cella. It has every appearance of an afterthought, and is obviously an early attempt, and perhaps the first of its kind.

c18.19

A temple having the appearance of being one of the last to be built at Aihole, and which is proved by an inscription recording its erection in A. D. 634, is the Jain temple of Meguti. In more than one particular it indicates that the building art by this time had made some progress. There is an improvement in the quality of the masonry, as smaller blocks of stone have been used, and other advances in technique are noticeable. More delicacy is shown in the treatment of the ornamentation, as seen in the design of the bracket capitals of the exterior pilasters in comparison with the coarse scrolls of the earlier buildings. Various refinements of a like nature denote increased experience in craftsmanship, but on the other hand there are few signs of any marked advance in the planning and general arrangements. This temple still retains the square pillared hall enclosing a central shrine which, together with other features, are evidences that the builders continued to be preoccupied with the mote-hall tradition, beyond which they had made little progress, so that no suitable temple scheme had yet been evolved. Portions of the building have been left unfinished, and the incomplete state of the carving serves to prove that it was the practice to chisel the plastic decoration on the structure after it was built, instead of preparing it beforehand in the quarry. This method may have been borrowed from the rock-cut technique, and much of the sculpture on the Aihole buildings, as well as the shaping of the masonry itself, savours of the natural rock treatment. As there are two minor examples of excavated temples, one Brahmanical and the other Jain,¹ in the immediate vicinity, such influence is not unlikely. That there was a guild of craftsman, highly skilled in rock-architecture, is manifested by a remarkable series of excavated temples at Badami, situated only fifteen miles away, and now to be described.

c18.20

¹ *Cave Temples of India* by Fergusson and Burgess, pp. 404 and 491.

c18.21

Badami, a corrupted form of the ancient "Vatapi", was a stronghold of the founders of the Chalukyan kingdom early in the sixth century. Picturesquely nestling at the foot of steep cliffs and by the side of a small lake, it contains several buildings of an early date, but what is most interesting is a series of four pillared halls excavated in the scarp of a hill overlooking the south-east side of the town. Three of these are Brahmanical, and one is Jain, in that numbered 3 of the former there is an inscription to the effect that it was prepared in A. D. 578 in the time of Mangalisa, the son of Pulakesi I, who selected the site for his capital. Such a precise and authentic date not only provides a valuable landmark in the history of rock-architecture as a whole but also denotes that this particular series of pillared galleries was among the earliest of its kind, for the only other rock-cut shrines upto the present belonging to the Brahmanical faith were the Gupta examples at Udaigiri in Bhopal State (Chapter X), and the somewhat elementary productions at Aihole. The group at Badami proves, by the high standard of the workmanship, that considerable progress had been made in this form of architectural expression in such a short interval. These four temples are connected by a causeway inclined up the face of the cliff, and each appears originally to have had an open court in front; in addition to the fore-court, that of the largest is enclosed by a structural retaining wall, the approach being by means of a flight of steps and through a doorway composed of excellent ashlar masonry, the whole carried out with a simple dignity recalling a good classical model. In their general appearance and interior arrangements these excavated temples are all of the same type, as each includes three features, a pillared verandah, a columned hall, and a small square cella cut deep into the rock. There is no outstanding architectural effect attempted in the exterior, the facade showing merely the range of pillars forming the verandah, save that a running border of grotesque figures in the form of rollicking urchins (*gana*), probably gnomes or earth-spirits, is carved in relief on the stylobate of each (Plate XLVII, Fig 2). In contrast to this unassuming, yet serviceable frontage, is the treatment of the interior, on the enrichment of which the rock-carver has concentrated his utmost skill, so that the spectator, passing from the bright sunlight outside into its darkened pillared halls, finds himself bewildered by the wealth of symbolism and mystical imagery which surrounds him on all sides, and appears to extend indefinitely into the interior gloom.

c18.22

Of such excellent quality is the sculpture and decoration generally, that, as in the case of the Gupta temples, their forms emphasise the progress that had been made in the plastic art of the time, in comparison with that of architecture. Moreover the wealth of carving conceals to some extent the shortcomings of the plan. For there is an uncertainty and indecision in the design of these sanctuaries as a whole, which can only be explained by the fact that the arrangements of the Brahmanical temple were still unevolved, the correct shape and disposition of its parts having not yet been assured. This is shown by the inapt proportions of the pillared halls, which end at their further extremity so abruptly that the compartment has the appearance of being truncated, or that its further progress had been stopped for want of explicit directions as to its form, a condition particularly noticeable in No. 3. Such uncertainty, in its turn, may have affected the columniation, which is not always symmetrical and, denotes some hesitation in the grouping of the pillars. For instance there is a wider interval between the two middle rows, suggesting, yet hardly confirming, a central aisle, and in No. 3 the idea of a double colonnade was possibly derived from a similar disposition of the pillars seen in the temple of Ladh Khan at Aihole. On the other hand the proportions of the interior may indicate a concession to the exigencies of the rock-cut mode, there being some correlation between the wide frontage and the shallow depth, the former giving the maximum light, and the latter the maximum space which this would efficiently illuminate. In these excavated temples the pillar is the most important element in the composition, and on their design depends much of the architectural effect. Most of the shafts of the columns are square in section, although those forming the inner colonnade of No. 3 are many-sided. Of the capitals to the pillars two kinds predominate, one in which the bracket is the chief feature, and another which is cushion-shaped. Combinations of the two forms are also seen. Above, are massive entablatures, while cross-beams supported by gryphons, having a curious resemblance to Gothic gargoyles, divide the ceilings into sunk panels like coffers each containing a carved pattern replete with symbolical devices (Plate XLVIII, Fig. 1).

c18.23

It seems probable that the Brahmanical halls at Badami were all excavated within a relatively short space of time, but the one belonging to the Jains was added nearly a century later. Of the three former, the largest and most important example bearing the dated inscription, and dedicated to Vishnu, was first begun being followed by No. 2, the smallest, also, Vaishnavite, which is only half its size; the last to be produced was No. 1, in this instance a Saivite shrine which, in its dimensions, is intermediate to the other two. Although in comparison with other rock-cut examples, those at Badami are not large, yet the proportions of No. 3 are not inconsiderable. The exterior width of its verandah, or what corresponds to a facade, is nearly 70 feet, and is composed of a colonnade of six pillars in addition to a pilaster at each end.

c18.24

Its extreme depth into the rock, including the cella, is 65 feet, but the assembly hall with its 14 columns only takes up half of this, thus making the shape, of the chamber twice as wide as it is deep, not a commendable ratio in view of its position in the plan. The average height of the whole is 15 feet. Every portion is richly carved, either with figures in such high relief as to be almost in the round, or with ornamental patterns so delicately chiselled as to resemble line engravings Most striking of all is the treatment of the portico pillars on which considerable imaginative effort has been expended. Over the moulded cushion-capitals massive brackets have been superimposed, each sculptured into a figure-composition of great boldness In addition to these, on the outer side and supporting the under-frame of the cave or cornice, struts have been projected, carved into images of hippogryphs and other fabulous monsters similar to those which seven centuries earlier, were cut out of the rock to enrich the *gumpha* of Manchapuri at Udaigiri in Orissa. (Chapter VI). This under-frame of the cornice was apparently suggested by the wooden battens which support a thatched roof.

c18.25

Apart from being smaller, the two other Brahmanical temples of the series differ from the preceding in the arrangement of the pillars within the columned hall. In each instance the columns are eight in number and so placed as to be equidistant from each other, except in the spacing of those in the central aisle, where the intercolumniation is slightly wider. Although this alignment of the pillars is an improvement on that of No 3, it still suggests some uncertainty as to their correct disposition. The facade of each of the smaller temples consists of a colonnade of four pillars forming the verandah on the inside of which are two pillars at the entrance to the central hall. The exterior of No. 1 is 42 feet wide, while that of No. 2 is 33 feet, and in comparing them relatively with No. 3, they both penetrate further into the rock, the entire depth of No 1 being over 50 feet from its front steps to the back wall of the cella. It is from the more considered nature of their plans, and also from the restrained character of the sculpture, that the slightly latter date has been attributed, the latter showing itself particularly in certain refinements in the mouldings, as for instance those around the entrance to the pillared hall of No. 2, which are astonishingly modern in treatment.

c18.26

Turning to the Jain example, at Badami, which may have been executed in the middle of the following century, it is apparent that it was inspired by the Brahmanical group, and is practically a copy of these adapted to suit the Jain ritual Its dimensions are less than the others as the facade with its four pillars and bracket capitals is only 31 feet wide, and the depth of the whole is but 16 feet. Although an interesting production, it merely testifies to a temporary revival in the seventh century, of the rock-cutter's art in this locality, after which it appears to have entirely ceased.