Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c19: Chapter XII: The Rock-Cut Architecture of the Mahayana Buddhists (cir. A.D. 450 to 642)

Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c19

Language: English

Chapter XII: The Rock-Cut Architecture of the Mahayana Buddhists (cir. A.D. 450 to 642)

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THE ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE OF THE MAHAYANA BUDDHISTS

STIMULATED also by the cultural conditions and atmosphere of toleration created during the Gupta regime, the Buddhists at the same time revived their architectural activity, particularly in its rock-cut aspect, in which they had already shown a marked proclivity. No doubt its exponents persisted in this form of production as it was a method with which they had long been familiar and also probably, because it presented no serious constructional difficulties. This Mahayana rock-cut architecture is restricted to certain specified localities in Western India, chiefly in the hilly country of the Ghats, such as Ajanta, Ellora, Aurangabad, and a few scattered retreats of lesser importance in the same region. At Ajanta, as described in Chapter V, a Hinayana order of priests had towards the beginning of the Christian era, excavated a group of large halls and monastic abodes, after which a quiescent period of four centuries intervened, when this Buddhist hierarchic settlement again sprang into life. On the other Buddhist site, that at Ellora as distinct from Ajanta, no earlier excavations had been made, it was previously unoccupied, so that here an entirely new undertaking was initiated by the Buddhists, and eventually developed, under the Jains and Brahmans into the most important and comprehensive range of rock-cut monuments in India. The Mahayana Buddhist movements, both at Ajanta and Ellora, appear to have begun simultaneously about the middle of the fifth century, but the other group, that near Aurangabad, which was probably an off-shoot from Ellora, may be dated slightly later. After the seventh century, as far as the Buddhists were concerned, this form of expression ceased, in fact this date marks the termination of Buddhists architectural effort in India, with the exception of the brick-built monasteries of the north, as produced in Bihar and the Gangetic plain (Chapter IX) Although the rock-cut monasteries of the Buddhists at Ellora are of great interest, the real glories of the site are the subsequent works of the other religious communities, the Hindus and the Jains, as will be shown later (Chapter XV).

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changes in the Buddhist doctrine, as it continued to maintain its traditional formation, of which the essential elements were the nave, aisles, apse, stupa, and vaulted roof. The same however cannot be said of the other class of rock-cut hall, the vihara, which underwent considerable alteration. In this monastic type of hostel an innovation which affected both the plan and intention and one which at once distinguishes the Mahayana vihara from the Hinayana, is the change produced in the disposition of the innermost range of cells The appropriation of these cells originally serving as dormitories for the monks, and their conversion into sanctuaries for the reception of images of the Buddha, is significant of the alteration in the belief as a whole. It meant, firstly, that the vihara was now fulfilling the functions of both abbey and church, secondly, that relic worship was being supplanted by image worship, and thirdly, that the dominating cult of Hinduism was not only influencing the Buddhist doctrine, but also vitally affecting its art and architectural practice.

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The most notable of these monastic retreats, that of Ajanta, provides an excellent illustration of the evolution of Buddhist rock architecture, as here it can be followed throughout its entire course. In addition to its architectural qualities, the situation of this group is romantic and inspiring as it consists of a range of excavated galleries extending in a sickle-shaped curve along the face of the cliff for over a third of a mile, and overhanging the waters of a pretty stream, cascading through the ravine below. Here are aligned twenty-eight monastic halls of various sizes and they have been numbered in sequence, beginning with No. 1 at the western extremity, and finishing with No. 28 at the eastern end. Four of these are chaitya halls or temples, and the remainder consist of viharas or monasteries (Plate XXV) As previously explained, taken as a whole they represent two independent movements, separated by a hiatus of over four centuries. The first group, comprising Nos 8, 9, 10, 12 and 13, as they belong to the much earlier Hinayana system, has been already described (Chapters V and VI). The others, twenty-three in number, illustrate the later of Mahayana movement, and form the series now under reference. Begun towards the middle of the fifth century they were in course of production for a period of two hundred years, the excavation of one hall after another, at irregular intervals, being carried on during the whole of this time. Then, as shown by the unfinished condition of the last example, the work came to an end in A. D. 642, a date which marks the death of the Chalukyan king Pulakesin II and the conquest of the country by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I

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In its broad sense, and in the formation of its productions, this later phase of Buddhist rock-cut architecture displays no marked departure from that of the earlier period, as the Mahayana priestly community still adhered to the two types of religious institutions established by convention, namely, the chaitya hall, or temple, and the vihara, or monastery. It was, therefore, not so much in the content, as in the stylistic treatment of these that a dissimilarity is observable, such changes as were made being largely conditioned by the changes in the nature of the creed. The most noticeable transformation, and one which gives a key to the whole movement, may be seen in the presentation of its iconography, as the deification of the Buddha permitted the introduction of his image into the art, an opportunity for statuary sometimes of colossal proportions of which the Mahayana sculptors took full advantage. In its architectural arrangements, the most characteristic of these two types, of excavated halls, that containing the chaitya, was but little affected by the

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The Mahayana rock-cut halls at Ajanta resolve themselves into five groups, according to the following circumstances, and order of execution. When about 450 A.D, this monastic retreat was revived and began its second phase, for a time the two now ancient Hinayana chaitya halls (Nos 9 and 10), sufficed for the actual service but the monastic dwellings being inadequate, more cells became necessary to provide for the additional priests The earliest group ① TEMPLE OF PAPANATHA AT PATTADAKAL CIR 680 ② TEMPLE OF VIRUPAKSHA AT PATTADAKAL CIR 740 TEMPLE OF KALLEŞVARA AT KUKKANUR. CIR 10TH CENT ③]

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DERIVATION OF TEMPLE TYPES

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DIAGRAMMATIC DRAWINGS SHOWING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEMPLE PLAN AND ELEVATION [CHAPTERS XIV AND XX

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Fig 1 Entrance

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[Figure: Fig 2 Main Hall Ellora, Rock-cut Temple, Dumar Lena, 7th cent AD]

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Fig 2 The Plinth The Kailasa, Ellora. 8th cent A D.

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Fig 1. Capital from Elephanta

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therefore of the series, viharas Nos. 11, 7 and 6, in that order, were added. These sufficed for a time, but, after some fifty years, still further accommodation for the priests was demanded, and also another and more appropriate hall of worship became desirable This brought the second group into existence, consisting of Nos. 15 to 20, probably the finest of the whole series, it included also the small, but elaborated chaitya hall No. 19. (Plate XLVIII). A little later, a third and separate group was begun on the extreme west of the line, being partially detached from the others owing to an intervening water course. Of this group, viharas numbered 21 to 25 were first cut, followed by chaitya hall No 26, all probably dating from the end of the sixth century. As time went on, and the popularity of the order increased, even more monastic hostels were needed, and so early in the seventh century the fourth group was added on the eastern extremity, thus accounting for viharas numbered 1 to 5. Finally, the last group was undertaken, consisting of two more viharas at the western end and opposite extremity of the line. These are numbered 27 and 28, and it is obvious from their partly completed state that the workmen were disturbed in the course of their operations, dropped their tools, and never returned. This took place towards the middle of the seventh century, when the site was abandoned for ever in consequence of the historical event referred to above.

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The approximate detailed dates therefore of the entire movement at Ajanta are as follows :—

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HINAYANA SERIES (2nd century B C. to 2nd century A.D.):
> Vihara No. 8, chaitya hall No. 9, chaitya hall No. 10, Viharas Nos. 12 and 13.

INTERVAL (2nd century A D., to cir. 450 A.D.).
MAHAYANA SERIES (A.D. 450 to A.D. 642):
> Viharas Nos. 11, 7 and 6 (A.D. 450-500).
> Viharas Nos. 15, 16, 17, 18, 20 and chaitya hall No. 19 (cir. A.D. 550).
> Viharas Nos. 21 to 25, and chaitya hall No. 26 (A.D. 550 to 600).
> Viharas Nos. 1 to 5 (A.D. 600-25)
> Viharas No. 27 and 26 (A D. 625-42).

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Such is the conjectural sequence outlining the execution of this monastic retreat, which in its high time must have presented a scene of exceptional spiritual and artistic activity. Now silence broods over the whole valley, the rock face is animated only by the brilliant sunshine, and within the pillared halls are mere whispers and shadows. At its most flourishing period, Ajanta must have accommodated as many as two hundred monks, and supplementing the monastic establishment, throughout much of its history, there would have been a considerable community of artisans and craftsmen engaged in the work of quarrying out, sculpturing, and decorating with mural paintings its numerous and extensive galleries. Of the manner in which the works were executed or the personnel of those employed, whether some of them were artist-monks, or all were lay exponents of their various crafts, can only be a matter of conjecture. But, whatever the system, in this remote valley there existed for some two centuries a school of art of marked power, religious intensity and originality. So much so that it seems not improbable Ajanta was the the fountain head of a movement that influence Buddhist art in no little degree wherever that creed flourished, extending even as far as China and Japan.

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The earliest sub-group in the Mahayana style at Ajanta, consisting of three viharas numbered 11, 7 and 6, forming the initial productions of the later movement, are examples of a transition stage, when the threads of the previous effort were again being taken up. Although differing materially from the original Hinayana type, they still clearly owe something to wooden forms, especially in the arrangement of the pillars in the main hall which seems to be an adaptation of materials used in a structural prototype. In No. 11, the first to be cut, the design of the four pillars suggests a square shed, or similar shelter, occupying the centre of the courtyard of the structural building (Plate XLIX, Fig. 2), while No. 7, next in order of production shows how two such erections placed side by side, became necessary in a structure of larger dimensions (Fig. 3). The lower story of No. 6 which may have been cut shortly afterwards, combines the system of the four central pillars of the previous examples, with the plan of another series of pillars all round the main hall, the latter corresponding to those supporting a verandah, a complex and almost confused arrangement which was not repeated (Fig 4). The sequence of experiments indicated in this group led to the final conception seen in the upper story of No. 6 which contains a colonnade on all four sides, a satisfactory and logical system of columniation adopted in all the subsequent vihara halls (Fig. 5). It is, however, to some of the détails in the lower story of this vihara to which attention is specially directed, as it has several unusual features. This particular example appears originally to have had a verandah on its exterior which has crumbled away, so that its facade now presents a doorway, with a rectangular window on either side. At some early date the doorway has been recut and slightly enlarged, but much of the old work still remains. The doorway has the overhanging lintel characteristic of the early Gupta style (c. 450 A.D.) with a recess at its outer extremities, most probably intended as a receptacle for a figure, in wood, of the river-god. Below the recess is a nook-shaft with vase-capital, base, and a pedestal in the shape of a caryatid and an elephant, the whole forming a singularly artistic composition In the interior of this vihara, the grouping of sixteen pillars, contained within a hall approximately 54 ft. square produces a congested appearance, modified to some extent by the simplicity of their design. These pillars are unlike any others at Ajanta, as little more than a simple moulding suffices for the capital, while the shafts are chamfered, and they have no bases.

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After a period of experiment, as shown in the diversified arrangement of the first group of the Mahayana viharas, the plan of the monastic hall became more or less standardized, although the detailed treatment of the succeeding groups shows considerable variety and fertility of invention. Of the remaining examples, the finest are Nos. 1, 4, 16, 17, 21 and 23, the high water mark of the whole series being attained in No. 16, dating from early in the sixth century, while the supreme efflorescence of the style may be studied in the carved and painted embellishment of No. 1, which was probably produced a century later (c. A.D. 625) Both Nos. 1 and 16 are of approximately the same size and designed on much the same lines, each having an exterior verandah 65 ft. long, a main hall 65 ft. square containing a surrounding aisle formed by a colonnade of twenty pillars, such being the average dimensions of the Ajanta viharas. Around the hall and verandah of No. 16, is recessed a series of sixteen square cells, and on the innermost side, cut deep into the rock, is a spacious sacrarium containing a seated figure of the Buddha.

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Although the Mahayana viharas at Ajanta show many pleasing features, and are wonderful examples of the rock-cut mode, they are easily surpassed in design and execution by the chaitya halls. There are two of these Buddhist temples in the series, of which No. 19 is the earlier and finer. This chaitya hall is not large, the entire height of the exterior being 38 ft. with a width of 32 feet, while its interior measures 46 ft. by 24 ft., so that in its proportions it is not dissimilar from Trinity Chapel in Canterbury Cathedral, with the exception of the lesser height which is only 24 feet. It corresponds also in size to the already existing chaitya hall No. 10, the smaller and later of the Hinayana series, and, as with the other Mahayana example (chaitya hall No. 26), it follows the earlier type in having flat ceilings to its side aisles. Chaitya hall No. 19 appears to have originally possessed a singularly well-proportioned entrance court with side-chapels, a scheme which serves as an attractive prelude to the facade. This facade has only one doorway, instead of the usual three, but in front of it is projected a pillared portico of such elegant design as to give its character to the whole. The roof of the portico forms a massive entablature, the upper surface of which was probably used as a minstrels’ gallery, and at the back rises the chaitya window, the entire height of the facade being 38 ft., with a width of 32 ft.

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The interior is divided into nave and aisles by a colonnade of fifteen pillars, in addition to two at the entrance, all closely set, and eleven feet high. These pillars have richly patterned shafts, with cushion capitals and ponderous brackets above. Supported by the brackets is a broad triforium or frieze, five feet wide, divided into panels, and continued right round the nave Over all rises the vaulted roof, with the ribs no longer additions in wood, but carved out of the rock itself. Every portion of the scheme is elaborately sculptured, particularly the bracket capitals and the triforium frieze above. Images of the Buddha, empanelled, canopied, or niched, are the leading feature, but, in contrast to these static figures, are groups of aerial beings, some mounted on winged animals, others in full flight, the whole forming an animated conception of great charm. But the interior is merely the setting or background for the *stupa* which it enshrines. This sacred emblem stands on a slightly elevated platform within the centre of the apse. At each side of the step leading to the platform erect and alongside the corresponding pillar, was originally sculptured a life-sized statue of the stupa guardian. Although they have now almost entirely crumbled away, the effect when complete of these two attendant figures, silent and impassive as the living rock out of which they were carved, must have been impressive indeed. The stupa is a composite monolith some 22 ft. high, its apex therefore nearly touching the vault of the apse above. In spite of the double dome forming the body, and other complexities, the traditional shape of the tumulus may still be traced, but the stupa as a whole, has been so elongated and elaborated that it bears really little resemblance to the low semi-spheroidal brick mound from which it was anciently derived. The face of the domical portion has now been converted into a pillared niche and canopy, its shallow recess occupied by a large image of the Buddha in high relief. Above the dome rises a tall finial in tiers, consisting of a *harmika*, three diminishing parasols, and a vase, the last being almost lost in the sombre gloom of the roof. The soaring height and general intention of this stupa recall the tapering spires of reliquaries found in some Continental cathedrals. (Plates XLIX and L).

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The other chaitya hall of the series is No. 26, and was excavated at least fifty years later than the preceding. Although an exceedingly fine and rich production, it is clear that the style had arrived at its adequate fulfilment, the turning-point had been reached, and no further progress in this particular form of architecture could be expected. Such an inference is established by the fact that there is not that correlation, or equilibrium of its parts which is so satisfying in the earlier example. It is approximately one-third larger in its dimensions, as it measures 68 ft. long, 36 ft. wide, and 31 ft. high, while, besides the two at the entrance, it contains 26 columns, each 12 ft. in height. The architectural treatment of this hall is in much the same style as No. 19 but the ornamentation has been increased, as may be noticed in the additional member introduced into the capital of the pillar, the recessing of the panels, with the elaboration generally of the triforium and in the insertion of decorative features wherever a space offered. The stupa is an imposing conception, overlaid with a wealth of carving, but as a whole it lacks the graceful proportions and rhythmic effect of the earlier type Externally this chaitya hall has been much damaged, as a broad pillared portico which extended across its entire front has disappeared, thus detracting considerably from the appearance of the facade. Inside the portico it is entered by three doorways, and above is the chaitya window against a background of richly carved figure compositions. There is almost an excess of sculpture in this example, most of it of a slightly monotonous order, which, together with the method of its execution are further proofs that the decline of the style was imminent. (Plate L, Fig. 1).

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In these later examples of chaitya hall and in fact in the Mahayana rock-architecture as a whole, not only the wooden construction itself is discarded, but much of its imitative character has been eliminated. It is true a timber framework with its curved transoms is retained in the opening of the chaitya window, and the ribs of the vaulted roof have every appearance of woodwork, but, except for these, the wooden attribution has lost its previous emphasis. The workmen employed in such productions were now realizing the differences in the material they were handling, and were becoming increasingly aware of the fact that each medium demanded a different technique. Instead, therefore, of copies in the rock of slender wooden beams and carpenters’ joinery as in the Hinayana examples, advantage was taken of the solid rock to effect an appearance of mass, weight, and volume, carving being freely distributed to enrich and lighten the whole. The later halls thus present a definite style of architecture, more flexible, sophisticated, and plastically ornate, than any which had hitherto prevailed. Much of this was brought about by the cultural sublimation which had developed in the consciousness of the people themselves, whose experience had now become more matured, they were no longer mere imitators but had acquired a reasoned aesthetic sense. The Ajanta Mahayana rock-cut monasteries display evidences of a growing appreciation of architectural values, and mark a distinct advance in the art evolution of the country.

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Although contemporary, and, in a direct line only some sixty miles distant, it is possible to detect in the Buddhist rock-architecture at Ellora, a slight difference in character from the corresponding series at Ajanta. Both monastic establishments being more or less self-contained, each may have had its own particular system, or doctrine, which reflected in the style. Moreover there is a difference in the terrain of the two places, a circumstance which no doubt affected their architectural treatment. For instead of the almost vertical cliff as at Ajanta, the halls of Ellora are excavated out of a ridge of low hills, pushed up from the vast plateau of the Deccan. At Ellora the Buddhists were the first of the three great religious communities to occupy this site, so that their monasteries are in the most favourable position, being at the southern end of a scarp of the plateau, where it throws out a horn to the west. Here they practised their religion for some two centuries, from A D. 450 to 650 during which period the group of twelve rock-cut halls belonging to the Buddhist creed were produced. This series may be resolved into two sub-groups, Nos. 1 to 5 known as the "Dhedwada group", and a group slightly later in date consisting of Nos. 6 to 12. Each sub-group comprises a prayer-hall and its attached monasteries. In the case of the earlier examples, the monks appear to have conducted their principal worship in the large pillared hall known as the Mahanwada (No. 5), an unusual type, as it consists of a combination of prayer-hall and monastery. In the later group the religious ceremonies were probably more according to convention, and performed in the chaitya hall No. 10 Save for the great hall of the Mahanwada, which is of a special character the monasteries of the earlier group differ very little from those at Ajanta. They are single-storied excavations, entered through a verandah, with a large central hall having a shrine-chamber or cella beyond. Of this type No. 2 is the most noteworthy, as it has a square hall of 48 feet side, with a colonnade of twelve massive pillars forming an aisle all round. Where it is exceptional is that in place of the usual series of cells leading out of this hall, a side gallery has been added, formed by a supplementary row of four pillars, a plan which has produced, on each side of the hall, a kind of iconostasis, with its back wall divided into compartments containing groups of statuary in bold relief. Such a departure in the interior arrangements of the monastery, is further evidence of the conversion of the hostel with its residential cells into a house of prayer, brought about by the changes effected in the creed.

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An architectural feature which emerges about this time, is a type of pillar and capital thoroughly distinctive of the rock-cut technique. Of massive proportions, the lower half, which corresponds to the shaft is a plain square prism, while the upper portion is round in section, vertically fluted, and elaborated into a capital consisting of the compressed "cushion" forms. This became the dominating type of capital and pillar and together with the other type already referred to as the "vase and foliage", constituted the two "orders" in all subsequent rock-cut architecture. So different in every aspect are these two capitals—the "cushion" and the "vase",—that it is clear they are the outcome of two entirely different but parallel traditions.

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Of the other halls in this early group, the Mahanwada, or No 5, is by far the largest and most remarkable, and, owing to its uncommon design, is in a class by itself. It measures 117 feet deep by 58½ feet wide, exclusive of two fair sized side recesses, and is divided into a nave and two aisles by twenty four "cushion" pillars in two rows. In addition it has twenty three cells opening out of its sides At the far end is a transverse vestibule, beyond which is a square cella containing a seated figure of the Buddha with his attendants. Down the centre of the nave, two low, narrow and parallel platforms have been left in the rock, extending the whole length of the hall, an unusual feature, of which there is only one other instance, namely the "Maharaja" or "Durbar Hall" at Kanheri; from this circumstance it may be inferred that, although many miles apart, both were designed for the same form of ceremonial usage. What the usage was is revealed by the Lamaistic services in the monasteries (*gumphas*) of Sikhim and Tibet, obviously a survival of those which prevailed in Buddhist India centuries before. There the priests (lamas) sit in two lines facing one another on raised platforms, the abbot on a higher seat at the head and on the right, with the altar and holy image beyond, all of which conforms to the Mahanwada plan. It was evidently in order to suit a similar type of ritual that the Mahanwada prayer-hall at Ellora, and the "Durbar Hall" at Kanheri were designed in such a manner.

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The second, and presumably slightly later sub-group of Buddhist excavations at Ellora, consisting of Nos. 6 to 12, is notable for the extent and size of the monasteries, and the character of its chaitya hall Two of the monasteries are by far the largest of their kind, as they are the only examples in three stories, and rise to a height of nearly 50 feet, with ample courtyards in front. Of these, No. 12, known as Tin Thal, or "Three Stories" is the most striking, and also the most commodious, as it has sufficient cells to lodge at least forty priests, while its assembly halls would provide, at the same time, room for congregations of many times that number. This capacious hostel and abbey combined is entered through a rock-cut gateway, which opens on to a quadrangle 108 feet wide, and 60 feet deep at its centre opposite the entrance, on the far side of which the facade rises in three equal tiers, each story being indicated externally by a verandah on eight square piers. The plain appearance of the exterior, with its bare entrance yard, is unusual, the whole being practically devoid of any vestige of ornament, recalling that of a severely utilitarian tenement house. As a contrast to this austere character of the facade, on entering the monastery it will be found that the interior of each hall is enriched with considerable sculpture, and interest in the production as a whole revives when it is found that each story is differently treated and each is of no little aesthetic and architectural merit. Beginning with the ground floor, access is obtained through a pillared verandah, 112 feet across and 43 feet deep, divided transversely into three aisles by means of three rows of columns of eight each, making 24 pillars in all. Extending into the rock at right angles to the verandah, is another pillared hall 35 feet across and 44 feet deep having three aisles of three pillars each. At the far end of this vestibule-hall is the shrine-chamber, a cella 23 feet across and 15 feet deep, containing a seated image of the Buddha, with other images in relief on the walls. Doorways in the sides of these halls lead to small square cells some twelve in number. In one of the cells on the right side, facing the facade, is a staircase for ascending to the floor above, or first story.

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This first story of the Tin Thal comprises one large compartment 112 feet across, 72 feet deep, and 11½ feet high, divided into five transverse aisles by five rows of pillars of eight each, thus producing a hall of forty pillars. On the far side are two supplementary pillars fronting a vestibule 38 feet wide by 17 feet deep, beyond which is the cella, a square chamber approximately 20 feet wide enshrining a seated figure of the Buddha The walls all round the hall and vestibule are recessed for the reception of Buddhist images in high relief. Staircases on either side of this great hall lead to the second or top story, where another form of interior will be found Here is a verandah of eight pillars as already noticed in the description of the facade, behind which is a hall, cruciform in plan, as it consists of a nave driven axially into the rock, flanked by a wing or transept on each side cut at right angles. The nave is a rectangular hall 78 feet deep and 36 feet wide divided longitudinally by two rows of pillars of five each. Each wing is also divided transversely, by two rows of pillars of three each the width of the whole being 118 feet, exclusive of the cells, 18 in number which open out of it on all sides. At the far end of the central hall is the cella, a square chamber of 20 feet wide containing the usual seated Buddha image with standing attendant figures round the walls.

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The other three-storied vihara of this group No. 11, misnamed the Do Thal, or "Two Stories" (as until recently one story was hidden under an accumulation of earth), is not so large or so spacious in its interior arrangements as the foregoing, but it is planned on somewhat similar lines. Where it differs is in the shallow nature of its halls, some of which are verandahs only, and there are no cells for the monks. Another vihara of the same group No. 6, has more interest because of its transverse plan, which is not dissimilar to the uppermost story of the Tin Thal, but without its system of pillars. The shape of this particular monastery indicates that it may have been a preliminary effort at a cruciform system, an arrangement which was adopted and elaborated later by the Hindus in the halls of the Dumar Lena and of Elphanta. In some of these viharas notably in the Tin Thal there will be found the most precise and mathematically accurate craftsmanship throughout the entire range of rock-architecture. Lines are straighter, angles more correct, and surfaces more true than in any other examples, indicating that at Ellora in the seventh century, rock-architecture, in its technical aspect, had reached its culmination.

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There now remains of this sub-group, the most notable production of the whole Buddhist series at Ellora, namely chaitya hall No. 10, commonly known as the Visvakarma, or "Lord of the Arts", as it has the reputation of being specially frequented by artisans particularly those of the carpenter caste. As a more orthodox type of Buddhist prayer-house, and the only one of its kind on the site, it resembles in many respects the two almost contemporary Mahayana chaitya halls at Ajanta previously described, although it is appreciably larger, as inside it measures 85 feet by 44 feet, with a height of 34 feet. It is not quite so richly carved as the Ajanta examples, as the twenty-eight pillars of the "vase and foliage" order, which divide it into nave and aisles, are, for the most part, comparatively plain, but otherwise its interior is planned and decorated on much the same general principles. The central feature of the hall, the stupa, manifests in its particular treatment a still further stage of development, showing that, although retaining the shape of a reliquary, it becomes little more than a substantial foundation for the support of a large projecting shrine or niche, containing a seated figure of the Buddha. As a whole, the interior of the Visvakarma chaitya hall marks a logical step in the evolution of the Buddhist house of prayer, its appearance changing gradually but surely in response to the changing character of the creed

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Although such a conversion may have had only a moderate effect on the inside of this temple, it shows itself with marked emphasis in the treatment of the exterior. This exterior is prefaced by a fairly large formal courtyard surrounded by a pillared arcade, that on the two sides providing the verandahs to apartments in their rear. At the far end rises the facade of the temple itself, and it is here that the most expressive innovation is discernible. Hitherto the great sun-window had been an important constituent attribute of the Buddhist chaitya hall exterior from time immemorial the horse-shoe arch over the entrance meaning something more than an architectural motif, it was an emblem of deep traditional significance In the facade of the Visvakarma, it is true, some recollection of this experience still lingers, but the result is reduced and transformed until it becomes meaningless. As a whole the scheme of the frontage is resolved into two parts by a broad entablature carried horizontally across the centre, the upper surface of which acted as a minstrels' gallery similar to many of the previous examples. Nor are the arrangements of the lower portion of the facade at all exceptional, as it consists mainly of a range of pillars comprising the portico, not unlike those of the latest chaitya hall (No. 26) at Ajanta But it is in the space above the entablature, where the sun-window should be placed that the most noticeable alteration has been effected. Here, the chaitya arch has been compressed until it forms a relatively small circular opening, below which is a transverse foliation, converting the whole into a kind of trefoil. Across the lower part of the triple formation thus produced an architrave has been carried on two pillars, a treatment so obviously a copy of wooden construction, that it suggests a reversion to the timber method. On this facade however there are two features of more than usual expressiveness. These are the two canopies over the niches at the extreme sides of the composition, each of different design. In them we seem to detect the two forms of shrine, which, derived from Vedic originals persisted eventually to become, as will be shown later, the basis of the two styles of Hindu temple architecture, the Indo-Aryan, and the Dravidian The one on the right, as proved by the ribbed melon shape of the *amala sila* or sacred stone, is the Indo-Aryan, while on the left is the canopy which afterwards became the characteristic feature of the Dravidian style. In the design of this facade may be observed an attempt at originality, which failed because it lacked inspiration. The Buddhist rock-cut architecture closes on this note, the sun-window of its chaitya halls was, in the earlier examples a noble symbol, in the somewhat meaningless form it assumes in the Visvakarma, the last of its kind, it becomes a portent. (Plate XLII, Fig 2)

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The Buddhist rock-cut monasteries of Aurangabad,¹ consist of three groups of excavations situated in a precipitous scarp of a hill about a mile north of that city. One of these groups contains a chaitya hall and four viharas, and another has four viharas, while a third has three "caves" of no particular significance. The viharas show by their style that they belong to the sixth and seventh centuries, being probably the latest of their kind, and are valuable as they are evidence of the manner in which Buddhist art, in this medium, was merging into that of the Hindus. On the other hand the style of the chaitya hall (No. 4) at Aurangabad is conflicting, as it displays certain characteristics that imply a very early date, possibly contemporary with the Hinayana group at Ajanta, and therefore not later than the third century A.D. If however it is an example of the Hinayana type, attached to it should be a vihara in the same early style, but none of the existing viharas on the site fulfil such conditions. This chaitya hall, which is much ruined, is a small example, as it measures 40 feet long by 22 feet wide, and the features which recall the previous movement are the [Figure: Fig. 2. Varāha Mandapa Mamallapuram: Mahendra Rock-cut Facades: c. A.D. 650]

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¹ See "Ind an Art and Letters" India Society, Vol XI, No 1.

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Lingaraja Temple, Bhubhaneswar

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Fig 1 Trimūrti Mandapa

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[Figure: SHRINES IN GABLE ENDS OF THE RATHAS AT MAMALLAPURAM, MADRAS. 7TH CENTURY A.D. BHIMA RATHA SAHADEVA RATHA GANESHA RATHA]

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[Figure: Fig. 1 Bādāmi, Bijāpur Dist Temple of Mālegitti Sivālaya from N E, c AD 700]

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[Figure: Fig 2 Māmallapuram Gener 1 View of the Rathas (Seven Pagodas), c AD 650]

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simple design of the stupa, and the treatment of the apse triforium. With regard to the stupa, this resembles the relatively low and plain examples of the Hinayana type, such as at Karli and others of the same period. The mural pattern on the triforium is singularly characteristic of the early phase, as it consists of an arcading of narrow arched panels of a kind which is one of the distinguishing features of the preceding style. Moreover there are other circumstances, such as the rib-vaulting of the roof, and the plainness of the interior as a whole, all suggestive of the earlier movement. It is not impossible therefore that this chaitya hall was an ancient production, with which was its accompanying and contemporary vihara, the latter, however, having been re-cut and elaborated into one of the later examples, on the revival of the creed at a subsequent date.

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Of the viharas at Aurangabad, those numbered 3 and 7, are the finest and also the best preserved, and more important still, each illustrates a different form of plan No. 3 is of the more general kind, in which the cella leads out of the pillared hall, being cut deep into the rock. On the other hand the cella of No. 7 occupies the centre of the main compartment, while a passage for ambulation is carried around it, an arrangement which is not common, and is probably a survival of some early tradition. When, shortly afterwards, the Hindus began their series of rock-cut temples at Ellora, a few of these were planned on much the same system, as for instance that known as the Rameswara. Another distinctive feature of the Aurangabad viharas is their plastic treatment, which takes two forms, one consisting of designs executed in moderate relief and chiefly on the pillars and their superstructures, the other of bold figure sculpture carved almost in the round. The pillars have capitals composed of a combination of the bracket with the vase and foliage motif, while in vihara No. 1 supplementary struts have been introduced, each a figure-subject of graceful design resembling those at Badami in temple No. 3. In addition to the rich character of the capitals, the entire shaft of the pillar is elaborately carved into designs of foliage and figures, particularly noticeable in No. 3.

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But it is in the larger figure carving that these viharas at Aurangabad excel, as some of the sculpture is of an unusual kind. There are several compositions containing representations of deities, some of them goddesses of massive proportions and voluptuous in form, for to comply with the requirements of the rock technique, this boldness of relief is in accordance with their architectural setting. It is, however, in the innermost shrine of vihara No. 3, that the most striking productions are found, for here are two groups of figures, almost life-size, and of surpassing interest. Each group consists of a number of votaries, kneeling in devout adoration before a colossal statue of the Buddha on his throne. There are both males and females, some offering garlands, others with clasped hands, and all displaying a touching eagerness in their attitude and expression. In the garments, head-dress and ornaments, and also in their physical appearance, they present a living picture of the people of the period. But they imply much more than a scene of everyday life of the seventh century. These groups of statuary show that when the sculptors were able to break away from their endless reproductions of the conventional and stylised images of the deities, they could depict the human form in its most life-like manner, realistically posed and naturally modelled. It is evident that genuine artistic expression was unduly restrained by the exacting conditions of the existing belief.

Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c19: Chapter XII: The Rock-Cut Architecture of the Mahayana Buddhists (cir. A.D. 450 to 642)

Chapter XII: The Rock-Cut Architecture of the Mahayana Buddhists (cir. A.D. 450 to 642)

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