Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c22: Chapter XV: Rock-Architecture: The Final Phase (A.D. 600 to 900)

Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c22

Language: English

Chapter XV: Rock-Architecture: The Final Phase (A.D. 600 to 900)

BY the seventh century, as shown in the previous chapter, the art of building by means of dressed stone masonry had already considerably advanced in certain parts of the country. Yet in spite of the progress made in the sphere of constructional architecture, the rock-cut form of expression had in the course of many years become so inherent a tradition that it continued to be practised until almost mediaeval times. So much so that during the period from the seventh to the tenth centuries the most notable development of rock-architecture took place. An explanation of this method persisting and surviving in India after the rest of the known world had become proficient in the more rational mode of building production, may be traced to a condition of comparative isolation which appears to have prevailed at the time. Intercourse with other civilizations had tended to be rare and intermittent, so that new experiences were not readily acquired. But another and perhaps more important factor that encouraged this ancient procedure, and gave it so long an existence in India, was contained in the instincts of the people themselves. For it is fairly clear that the rock temples were eminently suitable to their religious susceptibilities, the dim-lit columned halls crowded with immense shapes indestructible and hewn out of the earth itself, when compared with their own puny selves, filled them with fear and fascination combined. The solemn mystery of these great colonnaded caverns, yet orderly and symmetrical in their formation, would appeal to minds imaginative and intensely receptive, an innate mental condition to which the impassioned nature of their art plainly testifies.

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This final manifestation of rock-architecture in India was confined to three localities : (1) Ellora, where excavated halls under the Buddhists had been already in course of production for two hundred years (Chapter XII) ; (2) the islands of Elephanta and Salsette near Bombay ; and (3) a development under the Pallava dynasty, the rulers of a kingdom approximating geographically to the modern State of Madras. As the works of the last named form the opening phase of the Dravidian style as a whole, they are referred to in the next chapter. The rock-cut groups now to be described are the Brahmanical and Jain series at Ellora, and the Brahmanical examples at Elephanta and Salsette, all excavated between the seventh and the ninth centuries.

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It was early in the seventh century, when the activities of the Mahayana Buddhists on this site were drawing to a close, that the Hindu hierarchy began in their turn to prepare a series of columned halls in much the same architectural style as the Buddhist, but adapted to suit their own ritualistic needs The Brahmanical group at Ellora extends along the west face of the hill for about half a mile, and consists of sixteen excavations numbered 13 to 29 (Plate XXV). The principal examples are : (No. 14) Ravana-ka-Khai or Abode of Ravana, the demon king of Lanka (Ceylon) ; (No. 15) Das Avatar, or the Ten Incarnations of Vishnu ; (No 16) the Kailasa or Siva's Paradise ; (No. 21) Rameswara, or "Lord of Rama", (No. 29) Dumar Lena, sometimes called Sita's Nani, or Bath of Sita. These resolve themselves as follows, into four different types, most of them apparently taking their various shapes in order to conform to the changing requirements of the creed : (*a*) the most primitive, and evidently owing much to the Buddhist vihara, being merely a pillared portico with a cella beyond, as for example the Das Avatar (No. 15). (*b*) Similar to the preceding but with the cella isolated by means of a passage round it, as in the Ravana-ka-Khai, (No 14) and Rameswara (No. 21). (*c*) Another style in which the shrine is isolated but standing in the centre of a cruciform hall, the whole having more than one entrance, as in the Dumar Lena (No. 29), (The temple at Elephanta, and also the Jogeswara in Salsette are of this type) (*d*) The culmination of the rock-cut method taking the form not of an excavated series of galleries as in each of the previous examples, but one in which a structural temple is copied in all its detail, as in the monolithic temple of Kailasa (No. 16).

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The largest and finest of the first type (*a*), and also the most important as it is the only Brahmanical example in two stories, is the Das Avatar (No. 15). This temple is approached through a rock-cut entrance which opens on to a large irregular-shaped courtyard having a detached shrine in its centre. There is a doorway on the left of this courtyard leading to a square compartment surrounded by cells comprising the quarters of the sacristan and store-rooms for the reception of the ritualistic vestments and utensils. The detached shrine is a large and important feature of the exterior, probably intended for a *nandi* image (the bull of Siva), and is in the form of a square four-pillared pavilion surrounded by a verandah with a flight of steps at front and rear. Beyond this rises the facade of the temple, the two stories being defined by two rows, one above the other, of square pillars, recalling a similar arrangement in the frontage of the Tin Thal monastery in the Buddhist group. A short flight of steps gives admission to the ground floor which consists of a compartment 97 feet wide by 50 feet deep, and containing 14 square pillars A staircase on the left communicates with the upper story, a fine rectangular hall 105 feet by 95 feet having the large number of 44 pillars to support its flat roof. These pillars are arranged in six rows of nine each, with two additional ones at the far end of the central aisle to form a shallow vestibule leading to a square cella enshrining a lingam The whole of this portion of the conception is remarkable for the plainness, of its treatment, the pillars, save the two in front of the vestibule which are elaborately carved, being simple square prisms with flat abacus capitals. The architecture was however only the framework, or setting, for the handiwork of the sculptor, whose skill is displayed in large sunk panels spaced out between pilasters at regular intervals around the walls. In each of these deep square recesses is illustrated, in exceedingly bold relief, some striking episode from Hindu mythology, those on one side being mostly Vaishnava, while on the other they are entirely Saivite. The effect of such gigantic figures partly hidden by the darkness and shadowy obscurity of the pillared aisles is supremely dramatic.

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The second type of excavated hall, the kind distinguished by a processional path around the shrine, is represented by two fine examples, the Ravana-ka-Khai (No. 14) and the Rameswara (No 21), but except that both have this corridor for ambulation, they have little else in common. The Ravana-ka-Khai is very simple in plan, the whole of it occupying a regular rectangle 52 feet wide by 87 feet deep, two-thirds of the space in front being taken up by the pillared hall, the remainder by the shrine. Around the pillared hall is a row of columns with a double row in front forming a sort of verandah, the capitals of the columns being all of the vase and foliage order The side aisles are continued so as to give access to the passage round the shrine This shrine is produced by leaving a rectangular mass of rock in the centre of the far end of the hall, and cutting a cubical chamber within it. On each side of the entrance to the cella are carved a number of figures including two *dwarapalas*, and within is a broken image of Bhavani or Durga the deity to whom the temple was dedicated. Within the walls of the pillared hall are recesses between pilasters in which are boldly carved figure-compositions, on the south side Saivite subjects, and on the north Vaishnavite

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The other example of the processional passage type, the Rameswara (No. 21), is also a relatively simple scheme, but notable on account of the wealth of carving with which all its parts are overlaid. In front is a courtyard in the centre of which is a shrine consisting of a lofty pedestal elaborately sculptured and supporting a figure of the reclining bull of Siva Just beyond is the facade of the temple, a range of four short and prodigiously bulky columns arising above a highly decorated dwarf wall. This wall is interrupted between the two central pillars to form a doorway to the entrance hall or portico, a comparatively shallow compartment 25 feet deep, but 69 feet wide, these proportions being brought about by the fact that the portico is carried across the entire front, with a further extension of a chamber at each end Of the pillars inside the entrance hall, which are all of the "cushion" variety, the two on the inner side form three openings, that in the centre facing the cells, while those on each side lead to the processional passage round it. This type of shrine and cella is similar in principle to the previous example, but in the present instance the latter contains a *lingam*. The entrance portico with its massive fluted pillars, the profusion of carved imagery on its walls, and the giant *dwarpalas* (guardians) of its cella standing forth darkly powerful from the inner sanctuary, all combine to give the hall of the Rameswara considerable mystery of effect, but the chief character of the temple is not in its interior. This will be found outside in the architectural treatment of the facade, especially in the shape and design of its pillars. These four columnar groups form the principal feature of the frontage, with a half column completing the scheme at each end Their short shafts are almost entirely concealed by the dwarf wall which rises in front of them, so that the principal portion presenting itself to view is not the pillar but the capital. The capital is based on that of the vase and foliage order, but over this now familiar conception groups of figures in the shape of brackets have been superimposed, thus giving the motif not only a richer but an entirely different complexion. With their stunted proportions and miscellany of motifs the effect as a whole is one of fantastic extravagance, yet, on the other hand, some of the ornamentation, and particularly the rhythmic forms and exquisite modelling of the female figures show a feeling for grace of poise and voluptuous beauty which is instinctive

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The third type of excavated temple in which the shrine is not only isolated but contained within a group of halls arranged on a cruciform plan, is illustrated at Ellora by only one example, that of the Dumar Lena (No. 29). Two other rock-cut temples of this class are known, although on entirely different sites, one at Elephanta and the other the Jogeswara in Salsette, but the Dumar Lena is clearly the original by which these were inspired. Where this type differs fundamentally from all others and departs from the rock-cut tradition is in the number and position of its entrances, both the Ellora example and that at Elephanta having three separate portals, one at the front, and one in each wing. Such an innovation was dependent to some extent on the configuration of the hill in which the temple was excavated, and the manner in which some of the difficulties thus presented were met is seen in the varying forms of the plan. All the temples of this class are not only large in area but also in the scale of their parts, and although no doubt they were primarily devised to admit of the passage of important ceremonial processions, the result is an interior architectural scheme of a most impressive order. Much of the effect is due to the system of lighting, which, admitted through the portals from three opposite directions infiltrates into every part of the interior, casting an unending intricacy of shadows thus increasing the contrast and illusion. That it was a type of excavated hall copied from some form of building which has disappeared is not unlikely as the interior arrangements consisting of one pillared aisle passing through a row of columns into another having a different axial direction, seem to suggest a structural derivation.

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The Dumar Lena is one of the largest and most imposing temples on the Ellora site, the conditions of its plan being made possible by the shape of the hill in which it is cut In the interior disposition of its halls, the focal point not only in its ritualistic but also in its architectural aspect, is a massive central shrine, surrounded by gigantic figures guarding the steps on each of its sides which give access to the four doorways of the cella. Leading up to this shrine and partly encircling it is the main hall, a fine rectangular gallery 150 feet long and 50 feet wide, divided into a nave and aisles by a colonnade of five pillars on each side, including the two forming the principal entrance. Flanking the main hall, and opening out of it through a row of four pillars on each side, are the transepts, columned courts communicating with the two lateral entrances, the entire width across the temple between the side portals measuring the same as its depth, 150 feet. This transverse system of halls is not dissimilar in principle to that of a Gothic cathedral, for there are the main or west entrance, the north and south doorways, with pillared aisles from all three converging on to the "high place" confronting the sanctum in the east. (Plate LVI).

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The exterior of the Dumar Lena can scarcely be called a facade, as it consists of the three detached entrances, but all of which are of conspicuous design. Each is a wide pillared opening approached by a flight of steps with a statue mounted on a pedestal on either side of a lion, sedent, the head turned inward and one paw raised. With its background of pillars receding into the diminishing light of the interior there is a simple dignity in this conception of an entrance which, in Indian architecture has few equals. All the pillars within the temple are of the "cushion" order, [Figure: Fig 1 Tadıpatrı Pillar in Gopuram of the Rama Temple , 16th century]

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Vijayanagar (Hampi), Vittalaswami Temple. 16th century.

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[Figure: Fig 2 Srırangam Temple near Trichinopoly “Horse Court”, c A D 1590]

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Vellore, Temple in Fort Kalyan Mandapa : c 16th century

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[Figure: PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT MADURA

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100 80 60 40 20 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Ⓐ SHRINE OF SUNDARESVAR Ⓑ SHRINE OF MINAKSHI-DEVI Ⓒ ELLAMVATTA-SIDDHA Ⓓ TANK OF GOLDEN LILIES Ⓔ CHITRA MANDAPAM Ⓕ SERVAIKARAN MANDAPAM Ⓖ TIRUMALAI’S CHOULTRY Ⓗ SMALL SHRINE OF SUBRAHMANYA Ⓘ VIRAVASANTARAYA MANDAPAM Ⓙ KATYANASUNDARA MANDAPAM Ⓚ NANDI PAVILION Ⓛ POET’S COLLEGE]

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and are of stupendous proportions being fifteen feet high and five feet wide at the base ; as some of the standing figures are also fifteen feet in height the effect as a whole recalls some of the similarly large-scale productions of the ancient Egyptians Through the perspective of these ponderous piers, the sculptured shapes of the gods move elusive yet persistent "imaged in dimly-seen titanic forms, looming out of the unknown depths of space and eternity."

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As the two other temples of this class are situated elsewhere, a degression from the Ellora site becomes necessary at this stage in order to include them in their proper place. That on the island of Elephanta, near Bombay, and dating from the middle of the eighth century, resembles the Dumar Lena in the general distribution of its parts, but to a rather smaller scale, as its measurements overall are 130 feet by 129 feet. Certain changes in the plan may be traced partially due to the particular shape of the terrain in which the temple is situated, and although there are three entrances, the cruciform arrangement is not so clearly marked, while the shrine is placed in a side aisle instead of opposite the main front. In the proportions, style, and disposition of its pillars, there is a notable similarity to the Ellora example, as they are of the "cushion" order and aligned so as to produce the nave and aisles, with additional rows of pillars on either side to form the wings. The main shrine also, with its huge sculptured guardians, has been treated in the same way as that in the Dumar Lena, and the entrances appear to have been originally of the lion type. The remains of a frontage of this nature, with the sedent lions still in position guarding the flight of steps, may be seen in a supplementary prayer-hall on the east wing of the main temple, a kind of chapter-house, which, although ruined, still retains enough of the original work to show that it was a broad, simple and refined composition, thus providing an elegant and appropriate annexe. There are features in this side sanctuary such as the low level of the floor of the courtyard suggesting a kind of shallow reservoir, which may have an association with *Naga* (snake) worship and water spirits. In several types of early temple, water seems to have played an important part in the ritual, and so influenced not a little their architectural arrangements. Where however the Elephanta temple is superior to all others of its kind is in the character and quality of its sculptures, particularly those on the back or southern wall Here are three large square recesses, divided off by pilasters each of which bears a gigantic figure of a *dwarpala*. The panel to the left or east contains a spirited representation of Ardhanari, a manifestation of Siva typifying the male and female energies, while the corresponding panel on the right enshrines figures of Siva and Parvati. Both these groups are masterly examples of the plastic art, and pulsate with spiritual fervour, but the most striking of all, that in the central recess depicting the three-faced head of Siva Mahesamurthi is the creation of a genius Few works of sculpture excel the magnificent treatment of this colossal triple bust in which the whole essence of the creed is concentrated in forms of marvellous refinement and subtlety, carved, and full and alive ; in the white heat of his passion the sculptor seems to have melted the very substance of the rock and infused into it something of his own soul

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The cruciform type ends somewhat tamely in the temple of Jogeswari on the island of Salsette near Bombay, the last of its kind as it dates from about 800 A D. Although in some respects larger and more grandiose than the two preceding examples, there is a want of logic in its plan, with little of that assurance in the arrangements that makes these so satisfying. Comprising a rather rambling sequence of entrances, porticos, courts, and galleries, its principal central feature is a square hall of 95 feet side with an aisle all round formed by an inner colonnade of twenty pillars. Within this, in the middle, is the shrine with its four doorways leading to a cella containing a *linga*. The pillars are similar to those at Elphanta, but except for the carving on some of its doorways, its walls are devoid of sculpture. The main approach is from the east by means of a flight of steps which give access to a portico having a range of four pillars on each side. In the gallery behind these pillars the walls have been carved with figure subjects. Beyond the portico is an open court with an isolated mass of rock left on either side which it was evidently intended to sculpture. Three doorways in the far side of the court lead to another larger portico, with the same arrangement of pillars on each side, out of which three more doors give access to the main hall described above. This range of courts, porticos and main hall is in one alignment and the measurement of the whole amounts to two hundred and fifty feet in a straight line, a longer distance cut in the rock than any other of the excavated temples.

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The final type of Brahmanical rock-cut architecture consists of one example only, the Kailasa (Siva's Paradise) at Ellora, which stands in a class by itself, as it is unique Instead of the underground halls which had hitherto been the practice, its creators threw aside all previous conventions and boldly undertook to reproduce in the virgin rock to a very large scale and in full detail a structural temple of the period Truly has it been said "the Indian artist had an extraordinarily developed plastic sense. No other people has ever dreamed of sculpting such great temples out of the solid rock as he has. Indeed, Indian architecture proceeds, not as ours, according to the principles of construction ; it is rather conceived as an object cut out of a solid material as an ivory figure might be."¹ When it is realized that the ground plan of the Kailasa approximates in area that of the Parthenon at Athens, and that its height is one and half times that of the same Greek masterpiece, some idea of the magnitude of the undertaking may be conceived. In its plan and general arrangements the Kailasa bears a certain resemblance to the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal (Chapter XIV), even then a recent building, and one which was no doubt at the time considered the last word in temple design But although the early Chalukyan example may have provided some inspiration, the Kailasa is more than twice its size, and is clearly an illustration of the normal development of the Dravidian temple-type, adapted to conform to the particular technique involved. It is only logical that each individual temple at this formative period of the art, should be a copy of its predecessor, but improved and enriched by the accumulation of previous experience Once the idea of the Kailasa was conceived, its production became a matter of time, patience, and skilled labour, all of which appear to have been readily forthcoming. That it was an expression of exalted religious emotion is obvious but even this condition could not have made such a consummation possible, had it not also had the patronage of a ruler with unlimited resources and who was at the same time moved by the loftiest ideals. This monarch has been identified as Krishna I (757-783) of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Malkhed. Having subjugated the Western Chalukyans and occupied their territory, the dynasty was at the fulness of its power towards the latter half of the eighth century, during which time the Kailasa was executed. (Plates XXVIII, Fig. 2 and LVII).

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¹ Roger Fry, "*The Arts of Painting and Sculpture*", p 87.

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The first stage of the work, although laborious, was simple. It consisted in excavating out of the hillside three huge trenches at right angles, cut down vertically to the level of the base of the hill, thus forming a rectangle 300 feet by 175 feet. This operation outlined the shape of the courtyard and at the same time left standing in the middle a large isolated mass or "island" of rock, over 200 feet long, 100 feet wide and 100 feet high at its apex. Beginning at the top, the process of rough-hewing the irregular mass into shape was next undertaken, but those employed on this "pointing" were immediately followed by the sculptors, for each portion of the carved detail appears to have been completely finished as the work progressed downwards, thus avoiding any need for scaffolding. Such a method would naturally lead to deviations from the structural type, as the Kailasa is more closely allied to sculpture on a grand scale than to architecture, the effect being obtained by the process of cutting down, as distinct from building up. This accounts to some extent for the abnormally high plinth, which it was easy to leave in the living rock, and also for the "bridges" connecting certain portions of the scheme, none of which occur in any masonry buildings. Authorities¹ have shown that this method of production by excavation involves much less expenditure of labour than by building, but on the other hand the general effect is marred by the rock production always appearing in a pit, a disadvantage from which the Kailasa obviously suffers (Plate XXVIII, Fig. 2).

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¹ Ferguson, *History of Indian Architecture*, 1910, Vol I, p. 348

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The scheme of the Kailasa as a whole resolves itself into four parts, namely the body of the temple itself, the entrance gateway, an intermediate *nandi* shrine, and the cloisters surrounding the courtyard. On each side of the courtyard supplementary chambers have been excavated, the one cut into the north wall being a very large pillared hall called the Lankeswara, but these may have been added at a slightly later date, and in any case have little connection with the design as a whole. As regards orientation the axial alignment of the temple is from west to east, but contrary to the usual arrangement of the structural examples, due to its position on the hill-side, the entrance is not on the east, but to the west The main body of the temple occupies a parallelogram approximately 150 feet by 100 feet with sections of its sides projecting at intervals, like transepts, to support corresponding projecting features above. Much of the imposing character of this portion of the composition is obtained by the lofty and substantial plinth, which is twenty-five feet high, and at first sight has the appearance of a ground story. Above and below, the sub-structure is heavily moulded, while the central space of the sides is occupied by a grand frieze of boldly carved elephants and lions. Standing high on this plinth is the temple proper, approached by flights of steps leading to a pillared porch on its western side, and it is here that its designers rose to the greatest heights. There is no pronounced departure from the conventional combination of the mandapa and the vimana, but the manner in which various architectural elements, all definite and sharply outlined, such as cornices, pilasters, niches, and porticos, have been assembled in an orderly and artistic manner to form a unified whole, is masterly. Then over all rises the stately tower in three tiers, with its prominently projecting gable-front, and surmounted by a shapely cupola, reaching up to a total height of ninety-five feet. But this is not all. Around the wide space of the platform at the base of the vimana five subsidiary shrines have been fashioned out of the rock, each an elegant reproduction to a reduced scale of the main theme, to which they serve as a refrain. The interior consists of a pillared hall, from which a vestibule leads to the cella This hall is a well-proportioned compartment measuring seventy feet by sixty-two feet, having sixteen square piers in groups of four in each quarter, an arrangement which produces a cruciform central aisle with an effect of great dignity.

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The remaining portions of the temple-scheme, although essential to the composition as a whole, are substantially in the nature of accessories. There is the Nandi shrine in front, a pavilion twenty feet square and standing on a solid yet highly decorated base the entire height being fifty feet, in order to bring it level with the rest of the temple to which it is connected by a bridge. On the opposite side this shrine is joined in the same manner with the sole entrance a fine double-storied gatehouse with ample accommodation for the temple guardians, the whole combination forming a suitable introduction to the main design. Encircling the courtyard are cloisters composed of a colonnade of pillars the regularity of which is broken at intervals by the entrances to side chambers ; as a rich background to the central mass nothing could be more appropriate. Finally there are the two free-standing pillars, or *dhwajasthambhas*, fifty-one feet high, one on each side of the nandi shrine, in themselves finished works of art, gracefully proportioned yet strongly stable, their place in the architectural scheme being somewhat analogous to the obelisk in the Egyptian temple. Each bore the trisul, or ensign of Siva, to whom the Kailasa was dedicated, but in addition to this and other symbolism carved on their surfaces, the shape of these pillars has its significance. This is seen in the contours of the capital. During the early stages of the evolution of the Dravidian style, as has been already noticed in the very primitive pilasters of the Ladh Khan temple at Aihole dating from the fifth century, a type of capital was being formulated the distinguishing features of which were a "cushion" member above a constricted neck. A development of this combination produced the Dravidian "order", of which these monolithic columns of the Kailasa are an interpretation, the constricted neck having been transformed into that sloping shape below the cushion cap, a contraction of the outline which is unmistakable. Throughout the entire architectural scheme, pilasters and pillars of the Dravidian order are in evidence, although occasional examples of the "vase and foliage" type of capital have been introduced, showing that in this instance the influence of the northern style still persisted.

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The temple of Kailasa at Ellora is not only the most stupendous single work of art executed in India, but as an example of rock-architecture it is unrivalled Standing within its precincts and surrounded by its grey and hoary pavilions, one seems to be looking through into another world, not a world of time and space, but one of intense spiritual devotion expressed by such an amazing artistic creation hewn out of the earth itself. Gradually one becomes conscious of the remarkable imagination which conceived it, the unstinted labour which enabled it to be materialized (a work of a hundred years), and, finally, the sculpture with which it is adorned ; this plastic decoration is its crowning glory something more than a record of artistic form, it is a great spiritual achievement, every portion being a rich statement glowing with meaning. The Kailasa is an illustration of one of those rare occasions when men's minds, hearts, and hands work in unison towards the consummation of a supreme ideal. It was under such conditions of religious and cultural stability that this grand monolithic representation of Siva's Paradise was produced.

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Of these excavated temples on the Ellora site, there now remains only the final group, the productions of the Jains, probably begun about 800 A.D., and carried on continuously for the following century. This group the smallest of the entire series is set a little apart from the others, occupying the northern horn of the ridge, and consists of five examples, Nos 30 to 34, but only three are of any importance. One of these, known as the Chota Kailasa (No. 30) standing a little detached from the others, as indicated by its name, is a small copy of the great Brahmanical monolithic temple, the Kailasa, previously described Only about a quarter the size of the original, the hall being thirty-six feet wide compared with the Kailasa's fifty-five feet, it is a replica of it in most respects, but in the process of reduction, the tower has assumed rather stunted proportions, and is also unfinished. Much superior to this monolithic example are the two temples of the excavated variety, known as the Indra Sabha (No. 32) and the Jaganath Sabha (No. 33), standing close together. Both are in two stories, the larger and finer being the Indra Sabha, apparently the first of the group to be cut, and therefore dating from about 800 A.D. This temple is approached through a rock-cut doorway which opens on to a square courtyard of fifty feet side, much of the central portion of which is occupied by a monolithic shrine in the form of a miniature Dravidian temple. A handsome prelude to the temple proper, mounted on a high flight of steps and with all the details of the original model faithfully rendered, nevertheless this shrine is rather disproportionately large for its surroundings and as in addition there is a large free-standing pillar (*dhwajasthambha*) over thirty feet high on one side, and an imposing effigy of an elephant on the other, the courtyard as a whole is inclined to be congested Moreover as three sides of the quadrangle are elaborately carved to produce a two storied facade, such an excess of richness in so confined a space is overpowering. Yet there is much in the treatment of the sides of this frontage that has merit. What may be termed an entablature is one of its main features, consisting of a broad horizontal surface dividing the lower from the upper story, while a similar broad surface surmounts the upper story. Both entablatures are elaborately carved, the upper one by means of a series of shrines with images of the Tirthankars, or Jaina saints in the niches, the lower with a design which includes projecting elephant forms alternating with rampant lions against a background of pilasters and decorative vases. Although all these motifs are exceptionally well-designed and executed, and portions even well-composed, as a whole the facade does not appear to have been treated as a unity, it is an arrangement of very artistic elements but carried out without any clear pre-conceived plan.

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The condition of the interior proves conclusively that it was the practice in rock-architecture to carry the completion of the work from above downwards, for while the upper story is entirely finished, parts of the ground floor are only blocked out It was evidently the intention in the planning of the lower story to supplement the central hall by means of a range of cells, but these have been begun and left in the rough. This central hall, which is approached through a deep pillared verandah, is a square of approximately forty feet side, while beyond is a vestibule, also pillared, leading to the cella containing an image of the saint Mahavira seated on a lion throne All the pillars have plain square shafts, with simple flat brackets as capitals but in some instances the bases are richly moulded. It is not improbable that these plain shafts would have been carved into ornamental pillars had some untoward circumstances not intervened and prevented their completion. The upper story, which is reached by a staircase on the right of the lower verandah, consists of a cental hall with two additional sanctuaries thrown forward on each wing, the balconies of all three overlooking the open courtyard described above. The main hall in the centre has an elaborate pillared portico while the hall itself, a square of fifty feet side is surrounded by a colonnade of twelve pillars, with an altar in the middle on which originally stood a quadruple image (*chaumukha*); the ceiling immediately over this altar is coved and made to represent an immense lotus flower, with mortice holes at the corners and centre for pendent lamps. At the far end is a richly patterned doorway leading to a cella containing a figure of Mahavira. The two side sanctuaries are in most respects smaller copies of the large hall, with balcony and central chamber all pillared, and a cella with an image at the far end. No other temple at Ellora is so complete in its arrangements or so finished in its workmanship as this upper story of the Indra Sabha, all the large sunk panels between pilasters on every wall being filled with figure subjects, while the pillars, admirably spaced, and on occasion joined by dwarf walls, are moulded, fluted, and faceted, as in no other instance. Yet in spite of its advanced character there is a survival of certain wooden traditions, a curious reversion to the more primitive rock-cut type. Here and there are naive copies of timber expedients, literally translated, as for instance a wooden batten to hold the *asana* or seat-back of the balcony in its place, is exactly reproduced in the rock technique There are indications also that a considerable amount of woodwork was introduced to supplement the rock-work, as there are grooves for shutters to the verandahs, and a special arrangement of holes and sockets for the insertion of a wooden trap-door to enable the entrance to the upper floor to be impenetrably sealed. From such evidences it may be inferred that outside these groups of rock-cut religious retreats, the other buildings of the country were of wooden construction, and that the people as a whole were still living in the timber age

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The other notable example of the Jain group, the Jaganath Sabha (No. 33) is in general principles and in the treatment of its major parts, of the same character as the Indra Sabha, but without its regularity of plan The ground floor is a complex of three sanctuaries unsymmetrically arranged and opening out of a courtyard, much of which has crumbled away. Each sanctuary is self-contained and comparatively small, the hall of the largest being only 26 feet side, consisting of the usual complement of portico, square pillared compartment, and cella beyond. The upper floor is a larger hall much on the lines of that of the previous example except that it is rather smaller as it measures 57 feet by 40 feet, with a colonnade of twelve pillars around the four sides. There is a cella at the far end, and the walls are recessed for groups of figures Leading out of this main hall by means of an adjoining chamber in one corner, and at an angle to it, is a supplementary sanctuary, similar in proportions and character to those on the ground floor, exact in its workmanship and very complete in all its parts It is in the richly carved details and perfected finish, particularly of the pillars, all of which are elaborations of the cushion variety, that the Jain examples excel, and also in the precision and accuracy of the cutting generally. Throughout, the workmanship is of a high order, yet the planning, as in this instance, is inclined to be haphazard and improvisatory. Moreover, as in many of the productions of the Jains, in spite of the beauty of the embellishment, or perhaps in some obscure way on account of it, there is a cold and impersonal feeling in these rock-cut halls, which is not found in those of the Buddhist or Hindus, a circumstance of some irony in view of the pronounced humanitarian character of the creed that inspired them.

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With the excavated temples of the Jains at Ellora, which were probably completed towards the early part of the tenth century, the rock-architecture of India, to all intents and purposes, terminated. But before this occurred the close of the movement had been already foreshadowed. That outstanding monolithic example, the Kailasa, although representing its culmination, implied, all unconsciously the beginning of the end. When instead of the pillared halls penetrating into the interior of the hill-side their place was taken by direct copies of structural edifices, such replicas, however splendid, ceased to possess that indefinable quality which gave rock-architecture its real incentive. No longer was it an art of long sombre galleries and dim-lit cells peopled with colossal beings in a darkly splendid world, thrilling the devotee with a strange fearfulness into a state of religious awe. Brought out into the brilliant sunlight, much of the atmosphere of haunting mystery departed, and although the beauty of art and workmanship was greater than ever, as the Kailasa plainly testifies, its ancient motives and traditions were lost. Such may have been the metaphysical reason for the cessation of this architectural mode. But there was also the material explanation. By this time structural building had been developing, and there is little doubt that rock-architecture declined and eventually died out on account of the masonry system of production becoming perfected and its greater possibilities known. But for over a thousand years, corresponding approximately to the first millennium, it was a method of expression which flourished in several parts of India to produce some of the most remarkable monuments wrought by the hand of man. Whatever their architectural properties, that many of these excavated temples are outstanding works of art, significant of a people who had the vision and capacity for ideas to conceive them and the skill and audacity to create them out of the unyielding rock, cannot be denied.