Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c37: Chapter XXX: The Later Chalukyan Style
Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c37
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Chapter XXX: The Later Chalukyan Style
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(cir. A.D. 1050 to 1300)
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THE buildings in the remaining phase of the later Chalukyan style, as referred to in the previous chapter are located in a region towards the northern border of Mysore State, astride the upper reaches of the Tungabhadra river. This area is chiefly occupied by the Kanarese districts and that of Bellary, although it may be noted that examples of the same type of temple architecture are to be found in parts of the Nizam's dominions, and also in northern Mysore. Bounded as this region is, on the one hand by the country in which the Early Chalukyans originated and developed their style at the three towns of Aihole, Pattadakal, and Badami, and on the other by the territory containing the Chalukyan-Hoysala temples of Mysore, this phase of architecture not only affects characteristics from both these movements, but what is more important, it also supplies in some measure a connecting link between the two. It is possible, therefore, by a study of the buildings of this phase, to trace the evolution of the Chalukyan style as a whole from its beginning in the ancient Chalukyan triad of capitals, through the phase now being considered, step by step as it developed, until it arrived at the fully matured examples of the Hoysala school in Mysore, already described (Chapter XXIX). The period during which this style prevailed extended over some two and a half centuries, from about A.D. 1050 to 1300, or even later, after which the advent of the Muhammadans into these parts brought it to an end.
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The characteristics of this type of temple may be understood by an analysis of the various parts of these buildings which make up the whole, as for instance their plans, the treatment of the exterior walls, the shape of the towers or sikharas, the pillars or "order," and, lastly, the design and execution of the doorways. With regard to the plan, unlike the Hoysala temples of Mysore, none of them, with one exception,¹ is stellate, as they are all laid out on the principle of right lines and right angles, the whole consistently rectangled. Nor, also with one exception,² is the interior ambulatory passage encircling the cella found in these temples and sometimes light is introduced into the inner compartments by means of windows of perforated stone screens. It is also not uncommon for the principal entrances to be not at the front, but at the sides of the structure, as the eastern end is frequently faced by a supplementary cella, shrine, or pillared portico.
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¹ Temple of Dodda Basappa at Dambal.
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² Saraswati Temple at Gadag.
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As to the surface treatment of the exterior walls, in this particular aspect of the Chalukyan style, this is exceptionally well rendered. Owing to the nature of the temple composition, the outside walls in most regional developments provided a large area for decoration, of which the architectural sculptors took full advantage. This spacious wall surface was due to the fact that windows, or, in fact, voids of any kind, were rarely required. When one compares the brilliant climatic effects of the Orient with those of the west, where many windows are a necessity, as shown for instance in the Gothic buildings of Europe, the lack of such openings in the architecture of India will be understood. Sufficient light for the temple-structure was obtained mainly by reflection through the doorways, and, moreover, the impressiveness of the interior was emphasized by low illumination. In place therefore of any structural features interrupting the exterior surfaces of the building, the designers were faced with the problem of giving an effective appearance to the walls by some form of plastic decoration, preferably having an architectural basis. As already shown in some styles the difficulty was avoided by filling in the wall space with figure sculpture, not infrequently distributed over the surfaces with the minimum amount of order or restraint. Such an expedient however did not commend itself to the builders of the temples now under reference, as they rose to the occasion in a masterly manner, finishing off their structural scheme with decorative elements of great charm, and applied with taste and experience. For few buildings in India display a more appropriate system of architectural embellishment than the temples in this phase of the Chalukyan mode.
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The method of making effective the wall content of the temples was based on that initiated by the earlier Chalukyan builders, as at Pattadakal, in which the principle employed was that very sound one of spacing out the surface by means of pilasters. But the later craftsmen took this simple idea and developed it into a much more elaborate and finished conception. The pilasters are present, their slender shafts dividing the wall into well-proportioned areas, and giving to the whole a functional framework of great architectural value. Moreover, the builders added to the forcefulness of this by alternating much larger structural forms in the shape of half-pillars resembling buttresses, and at the same time a replica, in their design and detail, of the pillars of the open hall in front, a repetition of marked architectural compatibility. Then at appropriate intervals an ornamental niche or shrine was projected, with a wide eave to gather shadow, and above, a canopy, copying the decorated form of the sikhara itself, again a most artistic refrain. Finally, to enrich the whole scheme in a suitable manner a graceful motif, not unlike a standard reliquary, was interposed between the other elements, and supporting a trophy of foliated curves, while the same voluted trophy on a large scale finds a place wherever required. Such is a bare outline of the mural treatment of these temples, a disposition of architectural decoration which must be seen to be appreciated. While no doubt its conception was the result of experience, the ease and fluency with which it was designed and distributed, and its aesthetic fitness to the space it occupied, implies the possession of a natural gift for plastic expression inherited by its creators. (Plate CXXX.)
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[Figure: Fig 1 Tower of Fame ; c 1100]
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[Figure: Fig 2 Victory Tower of Kumbha Rana ; c. A D 1450.]
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Towers at Chitor Dabhoi, Baroda : City Gateways , 12th century A.D.
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Fig. 1
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Fig. 2
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[Figure: Fig 1 Ambarnath : Mahadev Temple, Pillar in Hall , 11th century]
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[Figure: Fig 2 Brindaban, Muttra . Temple of Jagal Kishore , 16th century.]
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[Figure: Fig 1 Sinnar, Nasik Dist . Gondeswara Temple ; 12th century]
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[Figure: Fig. 2 Brindaban Muttra : Govind Dey Temple ; AD 1590]
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Turning to the pyramidal tower which surmounts the temples, the design of this outstanding feature is a compromise between on the one hand the sikhara of the Early Chalukyan type with its plainly defined stories, and on the other the closely moulded tiers of the Hoysala examples in Mysore. And the same remarks apply to the superstructure forming the apex of the tower, which is neither the bold upstanding cupola of the Pattadakal variety, nor the flat overlying parasol favoured by the builders of Mysore, but a faceted, double-flexured bell-shape, suggestive of a combination of the two conceptions. As a whole the sikharas of this phase display a not unpleasing mass contained within moderately strong contours, and sustained by a series of well-marked horizontal mouldings sufficient to preserve an appearance of some structural vigour.
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In connection with the pillars of this mode, although they are richly moulded productions, there is little originality in their design, as they resemble the lathe-turned examples of the Hoysala style But in one respect there is a slight departure, as in the majority of these pillars the principal moulding below the actual capital is very considerably projected, with a pronounced knife-edge section, a striking and distinguishing detail of the "order".
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A notable feature of the later Chalukyan temple is the artistic emphasis given to the doorways, both in the case of those at the entrance to the building, and also those leading to the inner shrine. The practice of making the opening into the shrine-chamber the focal point of the temple embellishment has been previously noticed, but no other style has equalled the wealth of decoration and remarkable manipulative skill expended on some of the temple doorways of this region. Unlike those of the Hoysala type which, in keeping with their character are purely ornamental, there is an architectural framework as a basis to the design of these examples, consisting of a pilaster on either side with a moulded lintel and cornice above. Using this as his structural support, the craftsman has thrown over the whole a superb sculptured pattern of figures, foliage, and decorative effects, replete with mythical imagery, and carved with incredible detail and finish.
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Within the country occupied by this phase of architecture there are upwards of fifty temples, and by means of selecting certain examples the development of the style may be readily followed¹ Between the limits of the period, the dates of such examples and the sequence of their production, can only be largely conjectured, although these have been obtained by the sifting of several forms of evidence, as for instance inscriptions on or near the building, the local history, details of style, and the inference of certain elements in the construction What are probably the earliest buildings are at Kukkanur, a village near the railway junction of Gadag, two of which depict not only the initial character of the movement, but provide a stepping-stone midway between the ancient type as at Pattadakal, and the later development now being described. For in these two buildings at Kukkanur we see the only examples of this phase executed in the somewhat coarse sandstone of the earlier period, all the subsequent temples of the group being built of the more refined and tractable chloritic schist. The older of the two structures, the Navalinga, or "Nine Lingas," can scarcely be termed a temple as it comprises a cluster of nine cells around three pillared compartments, with a sikhara over each cell. These sikharas are in shape very similar to the type at Pattadakal, but the domical apex is already beginning to show signs of change. In the plastic decoration on the exterior there is that bold, almost coarse, modelling of their archetype above mentioned, and the pillars of the interior are substantial monoliths, with parts of their shafts turned into mouldings on a lathe.
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¹ *Chalukyan Architecture* by Cousens, H, Arch, Sur. of Ind, Vol. XLII, Calcutta, 1926.
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The other example at Kukkanur is the temple of Kallesvara which, although of much the same architectural character as the Navalinga shrine, in its more refined treatment marks a slight advance on that structure, and is therefore, no doubt, a little later in date. Complete in all its parts, with an outer *nandi* porch, a four pillared hall, vestibule and cella, all in axial alignment, it measures 67 feet long by 37 feet wide, while its sikhara is 37 feet high, so that it is a compact and well-proportioned composition. Its exterior walls are simply but effectively decorated with pilasters at fairly close intervals, and an occasional mural shrine or similar structural motif is interposed between. The most instructive feature is the tower, which depicts the beginning of the departure from the earlier Pattadakal model. An increased definition in the separate stories, and a pronounced double-flexured curve in the outlines of the cupola at its apex, show that progress towards the flattened and more florid Hoysala type was already taking place An unusual addition to the pillared hall are four windows tunnelled nearly seven feet through the thickness of the walls In view of their style and that they are built of the same material, these two structures at Kukkanur appear to be closely allied to the temples of the Early Chalukyan group, as at Aihole and Pattadakal, and should be but little removed from them in date, although on historical grounds, one would place them as late as the last half of the tenth century.
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Some little time after the production of the foregoing, a Jain temple was built at Lakkundi, a village seven miles from Gadag, which may be taken as the next step in the formation of the style. For not only does it denote progress in architectural experience, but it marks that change in material already referred to, when instead of the rougher grained sandstone hitherto used, it is built of the finer textured schist. The introduction of the latter reacted on the character of the workmanship as from now onwards the masonry courses are reduced in size, and the carving is more delicate and highly finished. The Jain temple is one of several buildings at Lakkundi, but it has every appearance of being the oldest, besides being the most imposing, as its dimensions are not inconsiderable, its length measuring 93 feet, its breadth 35 feet, and the sikhara is 42 feet in height. A distinguishing feature of its elevation is a high middle story in the tower, due, as in several Jain temples, to the imposition of an upper interior shrine-chamber, this supplementary sanctuary repeating, in several respects, the arrangements of the compartments underneath. On the eastern front is a large open-pillared hall, through which one passes to the sole entrance to the temple proper. Except for the more finished masonry and the finer character of the mural sculpture, there is nothing specially notable in the design of this building, save that the upper part of the tower indicates by the more flowing curve of its contours a still further trend towards the Hoysala model. As to the date of this temple it is recorded that Ballal II, one of the earliest of the Hoysala dynasty, made Lakkundi his capital in A.D. 1191, but even before that event it must have been an important city, so it is not unlikely from its appearance that this Jain temple was built in the last half of the eleventh century.
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A new architectural feature now becomes evident in the style. Up to this point the temples of the Chalukyan mode were provided with a cornice of no particular prominence, but nevertheless its peculiar section denoted a special origin This section takes the form of a simple quarter-round curve, added to which its bulky nature is obviously a heritage of the rock-cut type, which again derived from the overhanging thatched roof of the still older timber period As a means of protecting the structural temple from the sun and the rain, it was ineffective, and a more suitable device now appears. This takes the shape of a wide projecting eave rather than a cornice, often with a double curved section, forming not only an artistic but a most useful addition to the building, serviceable as a protection against the strong light and also as a method of warding off the heavy monsoon rains On most of the subsequent buildings this prominent eave, sometimes greatly expanded, although occasionally not curved but straight, and of exaggerated width, becomes a characteristic of this phase of the Chalukyan style An early example of its introduction may be seen in the temple of Muktesvara at Chaudadampur, a hamlet on the banks of the Tungabhadra river towards the eastern boundary of the Dharwar district. This temple measures 80 feet in length and has a tower some 55 feet in height, but it is not exactly symmetrical in plan, as there are two entrance porches on the adjoining sides, with a kind of open portico confronting the eastern doorway. In addition to the emergence of the new form of eave, this temple signifies another stage in the evolution of the style, for it illustrates the fact that the formation of the tower has now matured It shows in the design of this feature, that the well-defined stories distinguishing the early type, and also that of the Dravidian model, were being considerably reduced and their outlines obscured, by the wealth of plastic ornamentation which makes up the pattern of its sikhara The Muktesvara, which was probably produced towards the end of the eleventh century, is an elegant little structure, its innovations denoting that the building art was living and moving, but even with the marks of progress and improvement recorded above, the zenith of the style was yet to come.
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This consummation is exemplified in several temples of which the three finest are the Kasivisvesvara at Lakkundi, the Mahadeva at Ittagi, and the Mallikarjuna at Kuruvatti, all of which may date from the twelfth century There are others, which in certain aspects, may be equally good, but as a whole this small series is representative of the phase in its most finished form. The Lakkundi temple indicates that some of the plainer parts of its structure may be of earlier date, but it is surmised that it was rebuilt at the time the city became a Hoysala capital in 1193. (Plate CXXXI, Fig 1) It is one of several temples which adorned a once populous region, and is a double-shrined structure of conventional plan save for the unusual introduction of an open court towards the middle of its lay-out, from which various compartments extend axially on either side What strikes one most in the elevational aspect of the building is the strength and vigour of its conformation, and the outstanding relief and richness of its architectural embellishment, the whole resulting in a powerful and effective composition Provided with two shrines, one at each extremity, it has two separate towers, the larger one being at the western end, but both have lost their superstructures. The scheme consists of an alignment of four different sized squares, or elaborations of this figure, and its total length is 100 feet, with a width of 37 feet, while its main tower, when complete, would have been about 35 feet high The principal entrance is on the south side, and leads into the *navaranga*, a chamber some 20 feet square with four pillars in the centre, and eight semi-detached pilasters around the sides, each pillar with a lathe-turned foundation of mouldings, but parts of these embossed with an intricate pattern as fine as chased metal Where the temple excels however is in the bold character of the architectural ornamentation distributed over its vimanas, and the refined enrichment of its doorways, the one acting as a contrast to the other, evidently the productions of two different groups of workmen In the decoration of the western vimana the customary system of mural design has been followed, but several motifs have been emphasised, including a large and prominent niche and canopy in the centre of each side above which rises a kind of foliated trefoil repeated up the centre of the sikhara, each repeat diminishing as it ascends. There is a voluptuousness and exuberance in the ornamentation, in temper not unlike that of the Baroque in Europe with its fantasy of grandiose excrescences, but, although impassioned, it is well-controlled and expressive of the style at the extreme height of its power.
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The doorways of the Kasivisvesvara temple are its chief feature, one on the south, another on the east with a third leading to the cella, each of which is so treated as to possess all the qualities and essentials of a masterpiece. Each of these openings is designed on much the same principle, with a series of mouldings framing the rectangular aperture, but the sides are made structurally, as well as artistically firm by means of a prominent decorative pilaster. Above, is a moulded lintel surmounted by a carved cornice and overdoor, while a massive keystone, finely modelled into a scene of elephants anointing the goddess Lakshmi (*Gaja Lakshmi*) is a central motif The south doorway is perhaps even more elaborate, much thought and imagination having been expended on its design, the effect being increased by the crisp texture of the relief. The remaining example, the doorway leading to the inner shrine, in its plastic handling is equally effective, a spirited battle between elephant-riders and horsemen sculptured almost in the round on the ogee curves of the cornice, assumes the quality of an ivory carving, in the microscopic nature of its technique. There are other temples at Lakkundi, including that of Nanesvara, which is a reproduction to a smaller scale of the foregoing, and is probably of the same date but none of these approaches in size or rich appearance that of the Kasivisvesvara
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At the town of Ittagi, the temple of Mahadev is another illustration of this phase of the builders' art at its meridian and is situated some twenty-two miles east of Gadag This temple was the centre of an important group of religious structures arranged on a terrace specially built for the purpose and containing an ornamental tank the whole a very fine conception, evidently the focus of much spiritual activity early in the twelfth century A.D Now the only building which is intact is the Mahadev, and this has lost the upper part of its sikhara, while the roof of its pillared hall has also been damaged. Even with these defects it is a beautifully harmonised structure, orthodox and symmetrical in its arrangements as it consists of a hypostyle hall, chamber of assembly (*navaranga*), with a pillared porch on either side, a vestibule and a cella, all grouped together in a simple and appropriate manner. It is of a fair size, as it measures, 120 feet long by 60 feet wide, and its tower would have been over 40 feet high, the general appearance of the whole proving that these proportions produce a very pleasing result. According to some standards its decorative treatment may be considered excessive, but nonetheless it is all balanced and orderly, and, although rich, its elements are well thought out and carefully distributed. In style it is much nearer to the Mysore phase previously discussed, particularly in the suave curves of its tower, in which there are no stories but only horizontal tiers, and a sculptured pattern is repeated over its entire surface The hypostyle hall confronting the eastern aspect of the temple, and which measures some 55 feet across, is a striking part of the composition, as it originally contained as many as sixty-eight pillars, each of no mean size Of these the twenty-six interior ones are massive lathe-turned columns with highly decorated pedestals, while the four forming the central group support a coffered ceiling, wrought into a most intricate design of figuresubjects and spirited foliage scrolls In the interior of the *navaranga*, on each of the four walls, are two rectangular recesses, each one provided with a kind of altar table and a pedestal for the reception of sacred symbols, vessels, etc., a system strangely suggestive of the Easter Altar in some Christian churches In the same way the circular niche on the front face of the tower, now empty, was utilized for a change of image whenever this was desired. (Plate CXXX)
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The remaining example of this class, and of approximately the same date as the foregoing, is the temple of Mallikarjuna at Kuruvatti, a village on the Tungabhadra river, about seventeen miles west of the taluk headquarters of Harpanahalli. With a perfectly symmetrical plan, its sikhara quite complete, and its roof in tolerable condition, in many respects it may be regarded as a standard example of its kind. The length of the temple building itself is 38 feet, and its width, with the two entrance porches one on each side, is 36 feet, while its sikhara is 44 feet in height. If, however, the large *nandi* pavilion on its eastern front is included the whole composition is some 130 feet in length The architectural treatment of the entire structure is of the same order as that of the buildings previously described, although, as a whole the decoration on its surfaces is less congested, and there is more restraint in the distribution of the motifs which enrich its walls both inside and out. Across the entrance to the vestibule of the inner shrine there is a *toran* or archway consisting of a massive lintel on two free-standing pillars, each portion elaborately carved, while the bracket figures at the upper part of the pillars are more delicately sculptured than in any other example.
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One other group of temples belonging to this phase should be referred to on account of an unusual feature which finds a place on one of them This is a cluster of three temples at Gadag, dedicated to Trikutesvara, Sarasvati, and Somesvara, all representative of the style at its culmination, but one of these, that of Somesvara is distinctive because it displays a form of mural treatment which carries it entirely away from the Dravidian tradition, and draws it very close to that of Mysore. In the profusion of plastic elements decorating the exterior of this temple, towards the centre of its vertical wall surface, there appears an attempt to reproduce that type of niched figure sculpture which is so characteristic of the Hoysala temples at Halebid and Belur, each niche shaped like a "stele" and each containing a statue of a divinity carved in high relief. A little uncertain in form, this significant element emerges in the Somesvara temple, and is repeated around the building, supplanting the framework of pilasters, which in the Mysore type has almost completely disappeared. (Plate CXXVIII). By the introduction of such a motif in the Gadag example the two phases of the Chalukyan style, the Hoysala and the Kanarese, make definite contact. A further interest in this temple lies in the fact that its decoration is such that it appears to have reached the limit of its powers, it is inclined to be confused and its forms are lacking in vitality, conditions which may prefigure the beginning of the decline.
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Before finally leaving this development of the later Chalukyan style some account of the remarkable exception already referred to, is indicated, and which relates to the temple of Dodda Basappa at Dambal. (Plate CXXIX, Fig. 2). Dating probably from late in the twelfth century, this temple is the only one of its kind, as all the others of the phase are rectangular in their lay-out, so that this star-planned structure is conspicuous as a work of notable originality. For although many of the temples of the Hoysala phase in Mysore, as previously shown, had stellate sanctuaries, at Dambal not only the sanctuary, but also the pillared hall, or *navaranga*, is star-shaped in plan. In the case of the sanctuary of the Dodda Basappa temple, this is worked out on a system of twenty-four points to the star, while the pillared hall would have as many as thirty-four, but owing to the amount of wall surface taken up by the junction of these two compartments and the introduction of two doorways, the former has in reality only nineteen points and the latter twenty-one (Plate XI, Fig. 12) As the stellate plan is carried up right through the elevation of the building, the effect of such a close array of vertical offsets on the appearance of the structure as a whole is singular and arresting. Whereas in the upright portions of the *vimana* walls, and also of the *navaranga*, these angular projections present vivid passages of chiaroscuro, their vertical tendency adding to the strength of the building, when they pass into the tower to intersect the horizontal string-courses of that feature, the pattern thus produced is too exiguous to be architecturally convincing It is noticeable that the pillars of the porch to the main entrance of the building, which is on the south side, are fluted from base to capital, the idea being to maintain throughout the entire scheme its angular character, a commendable effort at architectural consistency. Such an innovation, however, raises the question as to whether the angularity in this instance has not exceeded its legitimate limits and so made to dominate the composition until it has become almost incongruous One part of the conception stands out as a first-rate piece of work, showing that the builders had a highly developed sense of values, but at the same time not quite sufficient competence to apply it to all parts of the structure This refers to the architectural treatment of the offsets of the vimana, a design consisting of forms alternating with motifs and motifs with forms, all gracefully attenuated so that the whole is not unlike the traceried walls of some fifteenth century northern Italian cathedral, or the panelled buttresses of sixteenth century Perpendicular Gothic
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In addition to the selected buildings of the style described above, there are many places within the area referred to where temples of the same type may be found, such as Haveri, Hangal, Bankapur, Niralgi, Harahalli, Galganatha, Harihara, Rattihalli, Belagamve, Unkal, Degamve, Belgaum, Bagali, Magala, Hirahadagalli, Nilagunda, Huvinahadgalli, and Halavagalu. Finally, for the phase in its decadence, there is the temple of Koppesvara at Khedrapur, a village thirty miles east of the town of Kolhapur This is a large building, planned in the usual manner with a spacious pillared hall in front, but its construction seems to have been interrupted, being eventually completed at a much later date in brick and plaster. Most probably, it was being built, therefore, just at the moment when the forces of the Moslem invader Malik Kafur overran the Dekkan early in the fourteenth century, and on that account was left unfinished From the design of the pillars particularly, the decline of the style can be understood, as these, although copying generally the shape of the fine moulded examples of the previous structures, are wrought in a dry and lifeless manner indicating plainly that by this time much of the fine spirit of the movements had gone out of it.
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¹
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¹ Cousens, H, *Chalukyan Architecture* (Arch. Sur of Ind.), Cal. 1926
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[Figure: Fig 2 Gwalior . Teli-ka-Mandir ; 11th century A D]
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[Figure: Fig 1 Brindaban, Muttra : Govind Dev Temple, Interior , A D 1500.]
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Gwalior . Larger Sas Bahu Temple : 11th century A D.
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[Figure: TYPES OF GABLED AND MULTIPLE ROOFS. SOUTH KANARA (2)
(1) BEYPORE, MALABAR ORISSA (3)
(4) SOUTH KANARA
(5) NEPAL
(6) WOODEN METHOD KASHMIR (7)
(8) GOP, KĀTHIĀWĀR]
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Fig. 1 Chandranatha Jain Temple ; Mudabidri, South Kanara
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[Figure: Fig 2 Travancore : Thuruvalla Temple; Temples with Gabled Roofs]