Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c40: Chapter XXXIII: The Building Art of Nepal
Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c40
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Chapter XXXIII: The Building Art of Nepal
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THE buildings in the independent kingdom of Nepal, together with the arts associated with these structures, display many original features, and at the same time provide a number of provocative factors relating to the evolution of the building art in Asia as a whole. In the sphere of architecture Nepal illustrates, with marked significance, the impact of two of the most forceful civilizations in the East, that of India on the one hand, and of China on the other, the two meeting within the region of Nepal's mountainous borders For geographically, historically, and politically, the country occupies a position between these two great empires, and during its course has drunk deeply from the cultural springs issuing from each, drawing its inspiration first from one and then from the other, alternatively, as the political currents ebbed or flowed. The influence of these powerful streams of racial ideals is envisaged clearly in the building art of Nepal, while in addition there is the effect, religious and graphic, of that great tide of Buddhism which swept through the continent of Asia before and after the beginning of the Christian era, inspiring every people and every activity in its porgress
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Although the country of Nepal extends in the shape of an irregular parallelogram along the ranges of the Himalayas, occupying a region some 450 miles in length and averaging 150 miles in breadth, the main tenor of its life is almost entirely concentrated within a relatively localised area towards the centre, spoken of as the "Valley of Nepal" The remainder of the State is composed of a rugged mountainous terrain, sparsely inhabited, and containing few features of note Within the valley, however, prehistorically a shallow lake but anciently drained so that it now presents an undulating landscape of considerable beauty, the vital pulse of the country beats Here in this depression measuring twenty miles long by fifteen miles wide are distributed towns and villages, but more important still, in a middle position, are closely grouped the three capitals of the kingdom, Katmandu, Patan, and Bhatgaon, the remarkable architectural character of each representing the building art of the country in all its aspects.
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This triad of capitals accounted for by the division of the kingdom in the fifteenth century into several different and separate states, each of which had its own royal residence or Durbar. And the groups of buildings which grew up around these Durbar palaces, each eventually to form a moderately sized and picturesquely planned township, were the work of the people who at that time, and up to the eighteenth century comprised the original inhabitants of the country. These were a race known as the Newars who occupied the country from a very early date, and although of indeterminate origin, appear to have entered the country from the north, probably from the direction of Tibet But whatever their derivation, their productions in the field of architecture are proof, as the capitals of Nepal amply testify, that they possessed an artistic sensibility of a particularly exuberant nature. That this indigenous aesthetic tendency was stimulated and influenced at intervals by currents from sources exterior to the country is clearly shown in the character of their creations during the course of their history. And that at certain periods they received ardent patronage from their own rulers is also obvious from the number and style of their buildings and monuments. But the fundamental fact remains that the consistent standard of art maintained throughout the whole of the mediaeval era was due to the natural aspirations of the Newars for an artistic environment, which found expression not only in their architecture, but in all the accompaniments of their daily lives.
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The undercurrent of Buddhism which runs throughout the religious system of the country during its entire history originated at an early date. It is recorded that in the third century B.C the Mauryan emperor of India, Asoka, made a pilgrimage into the valley of Nepal, and commemorated this event by the foundation of innumerable stupas as a token of his success in bringing the inhabitants into the Buddhist fold. After the passage of considerably over two thousand years it is believed that two of these monuments may be identified, one forming the central feature of the temple of Shwayambhu Nath, and the other known as the Bodhnath, both situated in the neighbourhood of the existing capital of Katmandu The main shape of these stupas is of the orthodox semiglobal form, but in each instance this spherical body is surmounted by a large finial of unusual design and imaginative treatment, no other Buddhist superstructure bearing any resemblance to it. Primarily derived from the conventional three-fold umbrella, which in a somewhat fantastic but identifiable form still crowns the entire scheme, the steeple-shaped structure below this is in thirteen diminishing tiers, symbolizing the thirteen Buddhist heavens. But it is the design of the cubical base supporting this "steeple," corresponding to the *harmika* in the Indian examples, that presents the most striking appearance For on each of its four gilded sides is embossed a face in metal and ivory with a large pair of human eyes Such an innovation produces as startling and almost mesmeric effect, the eyes following the course of the pilgrim in a mysterious manner as he circumambulates the base of the sacred memorial. Some have attributed this evice on the harmika to a certain aspect of sunworship, recalling the motif known as the *suraj-mukh* or "sun-face," of Indian temples, but more probably the eyes looking so searchingly into space are an outward sign of the "All Seeing One" (Plate CXLII & CXLI).
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Except however for their elaborate finials, the two examples of this class of stupa, are two very different conceptions. The Bodhnath for instance, has every appearance of having been, within modern times, thoroughly restored, but none the less, such conservation is of a convincing nature, suggesting that the old forms have been retained, and that the building as a whole is not far removed from its original design Its chief character lies in the substructure which comprises a number of concentric terraces, with turrets at the angles, the whole approached by a simple and dignified flight of steps The Bodhnath is an impressive monument by virtue of its plain and almost austere combination of planes and surfaces, contrasting emphatically with the intricate and elaborate nature of the subsequent mediaeval structures shortly to be described.
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The other stupa, that at Shwayambhu Nath, must also when originated, have been little more than a tumulus of consolidated earth erected on a prominent site, a hill arising abruptly out of the low lying valley around it. This rough mound is now crowned by an immense finial of the type previously described, and stands amidst a confused complex of temples, shrines, alcoves and symbolic accessories crowding the flagged terrace of which it forms the central feature. In marked comparison with the profusion of fretted forms which have accumulated in its vicinity during many centuries, the stupa itself appears as an unadorned pile of earthwork, creating the impression that the bulk of this elemental monument may indeed be all that is left of one of Asoka’s original tumuli erected to the order of that zealous and royal Buddhist some twenty-three centuries ago. (Plate CXLI) Primitive Buddhism, as in India, has almost passed out of Nepal, but these two stupas are a record of that period when this religion occupied a premier place in the life of its people
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Of the subsequent progress of this Buddhist development the material data is scanty, and much the same applies to such productions as took form during the centuries comprising the greater part of the first millennium There are remains which indicate that the building art was maintained in a fairly substantial manner during this long interval, but no important or entire structures have survived to which reference can be made in order to throw light on the actual shape that these assumed at this stage of their history. Gradually, however, it becomes apparent from the nature of their handiwork that the Newar artisans were coming within the compass of that powerful movement eventually to be known as the “Eastern School,” which flourished in the adjacent country of Bihar under the Pala and Sena dynasties in Bengal from the eighth to the twelfth centuries. The influence of the experienced Indian craftsmen during this period, supported by the traditions of the historical schools of Magadha and Varendra had a profound and far-reaching effect on the arts of Asia in the early middle ages, and there is certain evidence that the handicrafts of Nepal became one of the provincial or regional developments of this great religious and artistic movement having its headquarters in the Gangetic plain. But it was not until a dynasty of royal patrons known as the Mulla Rajas who reigned over Nepal from the thirteenth to the eighteenth centuries and up to the conquest of the country by the Gurkhas in 1768, that the arts flourished in their most exuberant form. The Mulla regime attained its prime, as shown by its architectural achievements, under the seventh ruler of the line, Jayastithi (1386-1429) and also during the reign of his successor the eighth raja Yaksha, although much good building and numerous artistic productions were executed under Raja Bhupatindra as late as the first half of the eighteenth century.
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It was during the Mulla ascendency that the three capitals previously mentioned came into being, and it is possible to visualize the manner in which these gradually evolved. First the residential palace for the ruler was located, with an adjacent Durbar Square, consisting of a paved open space for ceremonial occasions Around this were arranged the administrative buildings the whole forming an enclave reserved for governmental purposes. From this focal point streets radiated irregularly to supplementary squares each marking a quarter, or ward, known as *tols*, wherein a certain class of citizens resided and carried on their business. There is however little evidence of town-planning in this system, the fortuitous manner in which these lesser squares were placed in relation to the Durbar Square, and their unmethodical approaches, form one of the picturesque characteristics of these royal townships. In the course of time even this apparent attempt at orderliness has been lost, but the foregoing was obviously the general principle on which they were first laid out. Such is the present aspect of these architectural complexes, and it has been observed that “Nepal is still an authentic replica of an India that has disappeared”¹ Up to a certain point this is a correct appreciation of the concentrations of building art in the valley, but Nepal’s geographical position is such that certain factors exist in its architecture, which are not found in India The influence from India has already been explained, but on the opposite borders of the country are the immense and powerful civilizations of China and Tibet, which at certain periods, owing to political and other circumstances, affected not a little the outlook of its people. In its broad aspect this contact, especially that of Tibet, brought into the art of the Newars a certain Lamaistic quality, a mysticism and symbolism due to the elemental nature of thought in that country, conceptions inspired and stimulated by its great heights and empty spaciousness But on its architecture the pylonic buildings of Tibet had little influence, the Newars were not impressed by the plain surfaces and sloping lines and planes of the monasteries or temples of the Lamas as their productions amply testify, their natures cried out for elaboration and detail. On the other hand there are definite indications that what may be termed the “pagoda” motif, that dominating feature in the building art of the Far East, was readily accepted by the Nepalese builders, and much of the architecture of the valley takes after this pattern. To sum up, regarded as a whole the structures of Nepal notably those of a sectarian ascription fall into two categories, those of the “sikhara” variety clearly derived from the style of temple favoured in India, and those of the multiple roof design associated with the pagodas of China, the former being mainly constructed of masonry, while the latter are largely composed of wood.
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¹ Le Nepal, par Sylvain Levi, Paris 1905-08.
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The first impression conveyed by the buildings forming this group of royal towns of Nepal is that not only do they represent architecture, but they also display picturesque and profuse accretions of applied art. For it was the practice of the Newars to embellish the exteriors of their temples, and also many of their other structures, with such a confused array of supplementary religious and decorative features, in metal, stone, and wood, as almost to obscure the original design of the building. This particularly refers to the pagoda type of structure as the surfaces of these buildings specially lent themselves to such additional treatment. But by no means were all these superimposed elements supplied by the actual designers of the building as part of their architectural scheme, many being subsequently donated as acts of devotion and fixed in position by those who wished to show reverence to the temple wherein they worshipped. In this manner most of the better known religious edifices provide positive museums of Newar art, in which the imaginative designs of the artificers and the facile manipulation of their materials may be readily studied. While the prodigality of the Newar’s handiwork was applied without stint to all classes of building, both religious and secular, the temples were the chief object of these artistic contributions. (Plate CXLIII) These buildings, whether of the "sikhara" or "pagoda" kind, were not designed for congregational worship, but were really shrines enclosing a cella or chamber for the divinity, or a symbol, and were therefore objects of devotion in themselves. Around them would sometimes be a courtyard for assembly or processions, but the abode of the deity was the sacred substance of their prayers. This will explain why these buildings supplied a foundation on which to attach such artistic treasure as the ardent devotee could spare, either physically to support his entreaties or in view of the hereafter. Certain prominent features on the pagoda type of temple are however not only accessories to the building but also are invariably applied as an essential part of the structural and artistic effect. Among these are the elaborately carved wooden struts which support the overhanging roofs, the great metal griffins which guard the entrance, and the massive tympanums which project over the doorways and not infrequently the windows, this last artistic convention being a characteristic and arresting architectural component universally used throughout the entire course of the architecture of Nepal. Carved in wood or embossed in gilt metal this ponderous semi-ovoid pedimental attachment is rarely omitted, inclining forward over all the openings of the facade, and standing out not only on account of its prominent sculptured relief, but also because of the involved allegory which it so emphatically pictures A disquisition on this feature and its origin and interpretation, with other accompaniments which are so lavishly distributed over the surfaces of the Nepalese buildings, besides being beyond the scope of the present subject would require a volume in itself One motif is however of exceptional historical and structural interest. It was the custom of the Newar builders to follow the ancient procedure of projecting the wooden lintels of their doorways and other openings beyond the uprights forming the jambs. To act as a support to this projection they introduced a curved bracket which they decorated with a figure, and it is not difficult to recognize in this a later edition of that dryad support holding up the other ends of the cross-bars of the toranas in the Sanchi stupa dating some two thousand years previously. Through all these centuries this artistic and structural motif has preserved its identity, modified during its long period and altered by circumstances but performing its original purposes as in the days of primitive Buddhism in India.
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Of the "sikhara" form of Napalese temple, this structure, although obviously derived from the Indo-Aryan type of India, has been adapted to conform to different ideals. The sikhara surmounts a single cell, to which no mandapa is attached, but the whole is surrounded by a columned verandah, and is elevated on a series of diminishing plinths. All the main elements of the sikhara of India are visible such as the *urusringas* (attached turrets) the *amalasila* (fluted finial) and the characterisitc offsets (*paga*), but each treated in a manner different from its prototype, and therefore peculiarly expressive of the Newar idiom. A typical example of this class of building is the Krishna temple in the Durbar Square at Patan, which rises up in three arcaded stories, and is notable for the carved stone frieze of considerable length minutely chiselled depicting in full detail the romantic episodes of the divinity to whom it is consecrated. The arcading of this temple may be studied as in some respects it illustrates the "order" that was adopted not only in Nepal, but in the building art of the Himalayas generally. Trabeate in principle, the lintels are carried on brackets, a system which has led to this device being described as the "crutch" type of support, almost invariably employed in the wooden construction of these mountainous regions Consisting of monolithic pillars, their shafts octagonal in section, these columns are provided with very rudimentary bases, but have capitals of a distinctive design There is a square moulded abacus, but beneath this, part capital and part necking, is a circular chaplet of ovoid petals, an element which seems to be essential in all the fully matured capitals in Nepalese architecture Whether this feature is associated with the lotus flower, or is a derivative of the Indo-Aryan *kalas* or fluted vase is not clear, but it is a prominent motif not only in the building art of the Newars, but also in the earlier architecture of another Himalayan country, that of Kashmir.
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The secular or civic architecture of Nepal is of the same general character as the religious, except that it is constructed almost entirely of wood, supplemented by brick masonry with occasional accessories of metal added for adornment While most of the buildings are planned on the principle of a square interior open court around which are disposed the main compartments looking inwards, it is on the facade abutting on the public thoroughfare, or bazaar, that the chief architectural effect is concentrated. This facade is often a most elaborate conception, the artistic treatment of the frontages in a continuous arrangement along the streets being the architectural key-note of the towns as a whole. It was usually the practice to design these facades in three stories, the lowest or ground floor being let off as a shop recessed within the building, with "crutch" pillars to support the superstructure Above this ground story in most instances the first floor was composed of brick in which were interposed windows of a highly ornate and often intricate pattern Over this the uppermost story consisting of a substantial wooden construction was projected on brackets and struts, all most decoratively carved, often painted in variegated colours and the openings filled with wooden screens. The roof of red curved tiles with metal gutters and cornerings overhung the whole by means of a prominent cornice, shading the upper story and keeping out rain. Such a composition in itself forms a highly picturesque production, but when it is realized that each feature is carved, embossed, overlaid and wrought with the most ingenious and fanciful patterns including tinkling metal bells and hanging lamps, some idea of the general effect may be imagined. For instance the wooden and painted struts protruding from the dark background of the heavy eaves were most fantastically carved and coloured in the form of figures in spirited action and holding symbols, an effective method of breaking up the deep shadow of this portion of the conception It was, however, on the wooden windows of the intermediate story that the artisans lavished their infallible artistic skill, the variety and inventiveness shown in these being limitless The system employed was derived from a very ancient and traditional type already referred to in which the upper and lower supports were horizontal lintels extending beyond the square window frame placed between Both lintels, especially the upper, were freely carved and decorated, while the lower, or sill, was ornamented with metal. But it was on the actual opening, in lieu of glass, that the woodworker exercised his ingenuity by filling this space with complex geometrical lattices of jointed wood, corresponding to the *pinjra* of the Punjab and the *mashrabiya* of the Arabs. (Plate CXLV) The Newars were remarkably adept in the manipulation of their materials, both metal, [Figure: NALANDA MONASTERY-CITY. CONJECTURAL RESTORATION FROM EXCAVATED REMAINS OF THE 5TH STUPA. c. 6TH CENT. A.D DETAIL OF PILASTER PART PLAN SCALE OF FEET 10 5 10 20 30 40 N PERCY BROWN]
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Fig 1
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Fig. 2 Jor-Bangla, Vishnupur : Bengal ; c 18th century.
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[Figure: ① FROM A HINDU BUILDING SRINAGAR, KASHMIR 9TH CENT.
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② BUDDHIST NEAR PANDRETHAN, KASHMIR. 8TH-9TH CENT
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③ BUDDHIST CHAITYA PARIHASAPURA KASHMIR 8TH CENT.
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④ PLINTH MOULDING AT MARTAND, KASHMIR 8TH CENT.
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⑤ PLINTH AT PATAN, SANKARA-GAURISVARA KASHMIR 8TH CENT.
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⑥ CORNICE (INTERIOR) PANDRETHAN, KASHMIR 9TH CENT.
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⑦ BRICK WALL AT LATER MONASTERY, SARNATH, 9TH CENT.
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⑧ DOOR JAMB OF TEMPLE SUGANDHESA, PATAN, KASHMIR 9TH CENT
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SECTIONS OF MOULDINGS IN BUDDHIST AND HINDU BUILDINGS.]
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[Figure: 1 PLINTH OF GUPTA TEMPLE, DEOGARH c. 475 A.D.
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2 DURGA TEMPLE, AIHOLE, 475 A.D.
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3 STUPA MIRPUR-KHAS SIND. 4TH CENT A.D.
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4 TEMPLE No. 15, DEOGARH, (JAIN) c. 500 A.D.
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5 BUILDING No. 21, SANCHI, 600 A.D.
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6 MANDOR, JODHPUR CIR6TH CENT. A.D.
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7 VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE PATTADAKAL, 715 A.D.
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8 MAIN SHRINE AT SARNATH, 8TH-9TH CENT A.D.
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9 BOROBUDUR, JAVA 950 A.D.
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10 STUPA AT SARNATH 8TH-9TH CENT. A.D.
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11 CHATURBHUJ TEMPLE KHAJARAHO, C 950 A.D
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SECTIONS OF MOULDINGS IN BUDDHIST AND HINDU BUILDINGS]
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and wood, treating these in a manner which suggests something of a much more tensile nature, twisting and turning the former, and taking advantage of the texture, grain, and even colour of the latter in obtaining their artistic effects. They were also fully aware of the fact of "beauty in utility," so that every object in their daily lives, however humble, was aesthetically treated, an outstanding example, among many, being the metal spouts of their conduits converted by means of a spirited and appropriate *makara* motif into works of art, on which the craftsmen must have spent laborious days in sheer enthusiasm for their subject.
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One architectural feature in the civic aspect of the royal towns of Nepal, which is of striking originality, is the monumental pillar, as these exist in considerable numbers in the durbar squares. But these were something more than an isolated column, as they supported on their wide capitals a large metal group of statuary of elaborate design, recalling in a manner the Asokan columns of a previous and very distant era. The free-standing pillar of the Newars is a monolithic erection, moulded and ornamented with patterns of historical derivation and crowned with a capital of lotus petals, expanded so as to form a circular basis for the metal superstructure. Apart from groups of divinities, mystic symbols, and other emblems, the most ideal use of these pillars was for the display of portrait statuary, so that several of the most illustrious rulers of the Mulla dynasty are commemorated in this elevated and dignified manner. Of these one of the finest is that of Bhupatindra (cir. 1750) therefore a relatively recent production. Raised some thirty feet above the flagged pavement of the Durbar Square of Bhatgaon, kneeling in a devotional attitude on his Lion Throne under a ceremonial parasol, this statue in gilt metal and of heroic size is not only a crowning effort on the part of the craftsmen, who set effective achievement for above idealism, but a sculpturesque representation, conventionally treated, of a ruler whose record is one of marked personality. Moreover this fine bronze portrait of a kingly figure faces and looks down on the main portal of the Durbar Hall, the ruler's own conception and one of the most gorgeous works of art in the entire State. This doorway stands within a red brick pylon surmounted by an elegant metal roof, the combination of colours forming a pleasing setting to the actual opening in the centre. Of the characteristic design of such entrances, square-headed and with an immense gilt tympanum above, the composition as a whole is charged with symbolic elements embossed in the highest relief of which the metal and its skilled manipulators were capable This "Door of Gold" represents the consummation of the Nepalese artificers handicraft, a work of art of the most splendid order. Other stone columns also examples of this method of displaying portrait statuary grace the squares of the royal towns, some supporting several figures or family groups all of exceptional interest and artistic merit but none attain the simple dignity of the one described above.
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As a whole the complex of buildings forming the royal boroughs of Nepal presents a picture of sheer mediaevalism which can have few equals, but it symbolises more than such a material view implies. The art thus gathered together in rich profusion is a record of a time when beauty and humanity were the birthright of the people, to be enjoyed as an essential part of their lives. It embodies an architecture which may not possess the qualities of supreme greatness, but it expresses to the full the soul not only of those who produced it, but of those for whom it was wrought.
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REFERENCES
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Levi, Sylvain, *Le Nepal*, 3 *Vols.* Paris 1905-08 Wright, D, *History of Nepal.* Brown, Percy, *Picturesque Nepal,* A. & C. Black, London, 1912.