The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan c7: Chapter III

The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan c7

Language: English

Chapter III

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Modern theory—How differing from ancient—Notation—Arrangement of gamut—Scales—Time, how signified—Application of measure to music.

T HE modern theory of Indian music differs widely from that described in the ancient Sanskrit treatises, having, as has been said, passed through many changes in the course of time before assuming its present form. The peculiar division of the octave into twenty-two parts or s'rutis exists no longer in practice, and the employment of s'rutis or intervals less than semitones is *limited to grace*.

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The râgas in present use in most respects differ from those previously mentioned, and, in fact, the whole system has undergone a complete change and gradual refinement, until between the ancient and modern music there exists a difference as clearly marked and perceivable, to even the most casual observer, as between the modern Anglican chant and the ancient Gregorian tones.

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The notes employed in Indian music are expressed by the following characters¹ (termed, when sounded, svâras). These characters are repeated as often as is necessary, should more notes be required to complete a passage. No stave, as in the European system, is necessary, the characters being written in one line only.

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¹ The characters here represented are Telegu, that being the most musical language of Southern India. The corresponding letters of Tamil, Mahrathi, Sanskrit, &c., are frequently employed in the same way.

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| Name | How sung | Signified | Corresponding to European |
| Shadja | Sa | స | Do |
| Rishaba | Ri | రి | Re |
| Gandhâra | Ga | గ | Mi |
| Madhyama | Ma | మ | Fa |
| Panchâma | Pa | ప | Sol |
| Dhaivata | Dha | ధ | La |
| Nishâda | Ni | ని | Si |

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These seven notes correspond to those of the European diatonic major scale, unless the intervals are modified to those of some special scale.

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The Hindu octave, like the European, is divided into twelve semitones.²

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² This view is supported by both Sir W. Jones and Mr. Fowke ("Asiatic Researches"). Sir W. Jones remarks: "I tried in vain to discover in practice any difference between the Indian scale and that of our own; but knowing my ear to be very insufficiently exercised, I requested a German professor of music to accompany on his violin a Hindu lutenist, who sang by note some popular airs on the loves of Krishna and Radha, and he assured me that the scales were the same; and Mr. Shore afterwards informed me that when the voice of a native singer was in tune with his harpsichord, he found the Hindu series of seven notes to

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From these twelve semitones, seventy-two scales or modes, each consisting of seven notes, are formed upon a tonic of the same pitch.

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As the intervals of every scale or mode are signified by the above letters, it will be seen that there exists no method by which accidentals can be noted.

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The following table shows the arrangement of the twelve semitones under their respective significations.

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The note Pa (ಪ), as will be seen, is invariably the fifth of the scale.

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The keynote Sa (ಸ) may be of any pitch as may best suit the requirements of the performer.

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| Relation. | Sa. (ಸ) | Ri. (ರಿ) | Ga. (ಗ) | Ma. (ಮ) | Pa. (ಪ) | Dha. (ಧ) | Ni. (ನಿ) | Sa. (ಸ) |
| C | | | | | | | | |
| B | | | | | | | Kakeli³ | |
| A# | | | | | | Shat-s'ruti | Kaisika³ | |
| A | | | | | | Chatur-s'ruti | Suddha | |
| G# | | | | | | Suddha | | |
| G | | | | | | | | |
| F# | | | | Prati | | | | |
| F | | | | Suddha | | | | |
| E | | | Sadharama³ | | | | | |
| D# | | Shat-s'ruti | Antara³ | | | | | |
| D | | Chatur-s'ruti | Suddha | | | | | |
| C# | | Suddha | | | | | | |
| C | | | | | | | | |

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³ M. Grosset gives an interesting explanation of these terms, as used by Bhârata, in his *Contribution à l'étude de la musique Hindoue*. Paris, 1888. The terms are used in a slightly different sense, but the explanation should be read by those who wish to make further research.

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From the above table it may be easily understood that although every scale is sung to the syllables “Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni,” the intervals implied by these syllables vary in the different scales.

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For instance, Ri may be employed to denote either D♭, D♮, or D♯, as the case may be; assuming, of course, that Sa corresponds with C. When the names of the notes vary it has been noticed in the column under each respective head. These names should be prefixed to those of the notes, as Suddha-gandhâra, Antara-gandhâra.

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The scales formed upon these intervals are seventy-two in number, and are divided into two divisions of thirty-six in each.

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Those of the first division are styled “Suddha-madhyama,” from the fact that in their construction they employ that note, or the perfect fourth, throughout. Those of the second, for a similar reason, are styled “Prati-madhyama,” and employ the augmented or tritone fourth. In theoretical works the scales are classified in sets or “chacrams” of six; the construction of each chacram, as will be noticed, being very similar.

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The following is a list of all the scales,⁴ with their names and reference numbers, arranged by “chacrams” or sets of six precisely as given in treatises in the vernacular, the only difference being that European notation has been substituted for the Indian:—

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⁴ The scales here shown are those of the Karnâtik system. Those used in the Hindustani system are fewer in number and are differently named. They will be found upon page 91.

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SUDDHA-MADHYAMA. Karnakangi. No. 1. Rhátnangi. No. 2. Gânamurti. No. 3. Vânaspati. No. 4. Mânavati. No. 5. Tânarupi. No. 6.

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ascend like ours—by a sharp third.” From many experiments I am led to believe that a wrong idea as to the temperament of the Indian scale—as practically employed—has hitherto been held. I played over all the various scales shown later upon a pianoforte—tuned to equal temperament—in the presence of several well-known Hindustani and Karnâtik musicians, all of whom assured me that they corresponded exactly to those of the vina. Upon comparing the two instruments this was found to be the case—as far as could be judged by the ear alone—in every instance. Native airs are played by the private band of H.H. the Maharajah of Mysore; and as far as melody is concerned they are acknowledged to be perfectly in tune, according to Indian ideas, by all. Native airs are also played by the band of H.H. the Gaeckwar of Baroda, the chief musician at whose court—“Professor” Maula Bux—a man of considerable attainments, took pains to explain to me that the tempering of the modern Indian scales differed in no whit from the European. In fact, in practice, as among the ancient Greeks, the old enharmonic genus would seem to have given place to the chromatic.

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Sânapati. No. 7. Hanumatódi. No. 8.

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Dânuka. No. 9. Nâtakapryá. No. 10.

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Kókilapryá. No. 11. Rúpavati. No. 12.

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Gáiakapryá. No. 13. Vakhulabhárna. No. 14.

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Máyamálavagaula. No. 15. Cháckravaka. No. 16.

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Suryakánta. No. 17. Hatakambâri. No. 18.

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S'ankáradvâni. No. 19. Nâtabhairavi. No. 20.

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Kyravâni. No. 21. Kârahârapryá. No. 22.

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Gaurimanohâri. No. 23. Vârunapryá. No. 24.

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Mârarángini. No. 25. Chârukali. No. 26.

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Sârasángi. No. 27. Hârikambógi. No. 28.

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Déhras'ankârabhárna. No. 29. Nâganándini. No. 30.

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Yâgapryâ. No. 31.

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Râgavárdani. No. 32.

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Gangâiabhusâni. No. 33.

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Vâgadésvâri. No. 34.

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Shulini. No. 35.

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Chalanâta. No. 36.

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PRATI-MADHYAMA.

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Sâlanaga. No. 37.

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Sâlanâva. No. 38.

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Jâlavarâli. No. 39.

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Nâvanita. No. 40.

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Pavâni. No. 41.

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Râgonpryâ. No. 42.

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Gavambódi. No. 43.

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Bhávaprýa. No. 44.

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Sábhapántovarâli. No. 45.

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S'adivédamangini. No. 46.

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Suvaranángi. No. 47.

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Dávyamáni. No. 48.

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Duvalâmbheri. No. 49.

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Nâmanâgini. No. 50.

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Kâmavárdini. No. 51.

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Râmapryâ. No. 52.

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Gâmanas'rya. No. 53.

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Visvambári. No. 54.

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Syamalangi. No. 55. S'anmukaprýa. No. 56.

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S'rimhandra. No. 57. Hâmo-vasántha. No. 58.

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Dhârmovati. No. 59. Néttimatti. No. 60.

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Kantâmani. No. 61. Rishavaprýa. No. 62.

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Latângi. No. 63. Vachaspáti. No. 64.

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Mátsyakaliâni. No. 65. Chintâmani. No. 66.

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Sucharítra. No. 67. Jotisvarúpeni. No. 68.

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Dhartovardani. No. 69. Nás'icabhárna. No. 70.

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Kósala. No. 71. Rásikaprýa. No. 72.

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In Hindu music usually three octaves only, termed Sthâyis, are taken into consideration.

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Instruments such as the vina, &c., have, however, a compass of nearly four octaves. In order to signify the octave in which a note is to be played, a dot or dots are usually placed above or below it. There is no definite rule for this; each musician or writer upon music apparently advocates some method of his own.

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Music is not, as with us, divided by bars of equal duration. Divisions styled Gitalu are in use, and are signified thus | or —; they can be placed anywhere, at the composer's discretion, and denote parts or phrases so to speak.

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They are frequently marked thus || or =, when they denote the repetition of a part, or the conclusion of a strain.

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The sign of the lotus flower 🪷 is used by some writers for the same purpose.

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Time, by which is implied the relative values of a succession of notes, cannot be expressed with any degree of accuracy without indeed so complicated an arrangement of signs as to be almost unintelligible. The method is described fully in the Sanskrit works, but from this reason it has fallen into disuse. The value of the note is invariably taught orally by a master, and the ear is thereby cultivated to a very high degree.

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The following signs (or their equivalents if the character is Devanâgari) are, however, made use of in order to convey—approximately only—whether notes are to be of long or short duration :—

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Dirgha : This sign, used in conjunction with the musical characters, signifies that they represent “long notes”— నా రీ గా మా పా దా నీ

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Votu : This sign in the same way represents “short notes”— స రి గ మ ప ద ని

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The different degrees of time are termed Tâlas, of which there are seven, each being sub-divided into five “jâtis,” or kinds; so that there are in use no less than thirty-five distinct measures.

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By the annexed table the various tâlas and their respective jâtis will be understood at a glance, the figures signifying the number of beats of equal duration made in a bar.

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| | | Name of Jâti. | | | |
| | | Chaturúshra. | Tíshra. | Míshra. | Cúndha. | Sankírna. |
| | Dhruva | 4, 2, 4, 4⁵ | 3, 2, 3 | 7, 2, 7, 7 | 5, 2, 5, 5 | 9, 2, 9, 9 |
| | Mátsya | 4, 2, 4 | 3, 2, 3 | 7, 2, 7 | 5, 2, 5 | 9, 2, 9 |
| Name | Rúpaka | 4, 2 | 3, 2 | 7, 2 | 5, 2 | 9, 2 |
| of | Jhampa | 4, 1, 2 | 3, 1, 2 | 7, 1, 2 | 5, 1, 2 | 9, 1, 2 |
| Tâla. | Triputa | 4, 2, 2 | 3, 2, 2 | 7, 2, 2 | 5, 2, 2 | 9, 2, 2 |
| | Atatâla | 4, 4, 2, 2 | 3, 3, 2, 2 | 7, 7, 2, 2 | 5, 5, 2, 2 | 9, 9, 2, 2 |
| | Ekatâla | 4 | 3 | 7 | 5 | 6 |

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⁵ Sometimes in practice this is played 6, 4, 4, although theoretically wrong.

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Tâlas can be denoted by the following signatures:— Anudruthâ ........ ∪ denoting 1 unit of time. Druthâ . . . . . 0 ,, 2 ,, ,, Lâgu . . . . . 1 ,, 4 ,, ,, Guru . . . . . 8 ,, 8 ,, ,, Pluthâ . . . . . 3 ,, 12 ,, ,, Kakupathâ ........ + ,, 16 ,, ,,

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The jâti of the tâla is usually appended to the signature in words. Should nothing be appended, then the Chaturúshra is generally understood.

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In order to employ these signs they should be substituted for the figures in the table: thus 1011 will denote the Chaturúshra jâti of Druvatâla. Hence, when written in European notation, there is often a constant rotation corresponding to the tâla of bars of different time signatures.