Town Planning in Ancient India c10.s2: Paramaśayika

Town Planning in Ancient India c10.s2

Language: English

Paramaśayika

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were again subdivided by a net-work of narrower and smaller streets into building blocks. All the ‘grāmas’ or wards were not laid out after the same pattern. Their planning was regulated by requirements of business which the residents of any ward carried on. In order to stamp the wards with individuality and diversity of character, all the wards were not divided again into the same number of building plots; neither the building roads and lanes were planted on the same plan. All the various types of village-plans were sometimes adopted, even in a single town.

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In India, considerations of efficiency in corporate life, and the principle of the Varṇāśrama Dharma developing a social stratification of the people in general and of the functionaries of the state, led to a segregation of the classes following different pursuits; and the same caste or people of the same profession were congregated in the same ward¹ so that a uniformity of life and consequent economic efficiency and progress were secured. Every ward was set apart for a caste or trade guilt of note which enjoyed an autonomy of its own.² Thus if the Śūdra class was numerically very large, a separate block or even a separate site was allotted to it. The goldsmiths, the artisans, the perfume-dealers, the Brāhmaṇs, or the soldiers would have distinct muhallas or a detached group of blocks of their own. Even to-day in the towns or villages of Southern India the Brāhmaṇa quarter is separate and goes by the name of Agrahāram. In large cities any of the sites into which the whole city was divided by the main highways, was so large that no particular class was important and big enough to inhabit it to the full. Again in large cities such detachment of classes or castes is neither conducive to the integrity of civic life nor good for the class itself, because corporate life connotes manifold needs and responsibilities and consequently necessitates interdependence and inter-communication. Hence every site was divided into different blocks or plots, one being meant for each class. In a word, a site was the prototype of the whole city on a smaller scale. This admixture and congregation of classes came as a remedial measure against possible accentuation of class differences.

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¹ Śukranītisāra, Ch. I, l. 514. सजातीयगृहाणां समुदायैन पङ्क्तिः ॥

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² Vide Dr. R. C. Mazumdar's Corporate Life in Ancient India.

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The above sums up the principle of folk-planning, and this folk-planning is one of the most important subjects dwelt on in the Śilpa Sāstras.¹ It gave an individual tone to the sites; indeed folk-planning scarcely differs from site-planning. This folk-planning was designed in different fashions by different authorities, and I will give here some account of the various kinds of site-planning.

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¹ It is the authors of the Śilpa Śāstras who have made their folk-planning hinge upon padavinyāsa, whereas Kauṭilya, Śukrāchāryya and the author of the Agni Purāṇa do not refer to padavinyāsa. Nowhere in their works do we come across any allusion to or description of this scheme. Their method of allocating sites and folk is therefore quite independent of padavinyāsa and the various classes and professions have been represented in their ideal towns in quarters selected only with reference to the site of the royal mansions. The latter authorities all belong to Northern India. Do we get here a glimpse of two schools, Northern and Southern?

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Kauṭilya designs his plan in this wise: "Demarcation of the ground inside the fort shall be made first by opening three royal roads from west to east and three from south to north.

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"In the midst of the houses of the people of all the four castes and to the north from the centre of the ground inside the fort, the king's palace facing either the north or the east shall be constructed occupying one-ninth of the whole site inside the fort. Royal teachers, priests, sacrificial place, water reservoir, and ministers shall occupy sites east by north to the palace. Royal kitchens, elephant stables, and the store house shall be situated on sites east by south.

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On the eastern side, merchants trading in scents, garlands, grains, and liquids, together with expert artisans and the people of the Kshatriya caste shall have their habitations. The treasury, the accountant's office, and various manufactories shall be situated on the sites south by east. The store house of forest produce and the arsenal shall be constructed on sites south by west.

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"To the south, the superintendent of the city, of commerce, of manufactories, and of the army as well as those who trade in cooked rice, liquor, and flesh, besides prostitutes, musicians, and the people of Vaiśya caste shall live. To the west by south, stables of asses, camels, and working house. To the west by north, stables of conveyances and chariots. To the west, the artisans manufacturing worsted threads, cotton threads, bamboo-mats, skins, armours, weapons, and gloves as well as the people of Śūdra caste shall have their dwellings.

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"To the north by west, shops and hospitals. To the north by east, the treasury and the stables of cows and horses. To the north, the royal tutelary deity of the city, ironsmiths, artisans working on precious stones, as well as Brāhmaṇs shall reside. In the several corners, guilds and corporations of workmen shall reside.

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“ In the centre of the city, the apartments of gods such as Aparājita, Apratihata, Jayanta, Vaijayanta, Śiva, Vaiśravaṇa, Aśvina (divine physicians), and Viṣṇu¹ shall be situated. In the corners, the guardian deities of the ground shall be appropriately set up. ....At a distance of 100 dhanus (1 dhanu 6 feet) from the ditch (on the counterscarp side) places of worship and pilgrimage, groves and buildings shall be constructed. Guardian deities of all quarters shall also be set up in quarters appropriate to them.

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¹ Dr. Shama Sastry reads Śrī-madira-gṛha and translates it as honourable liquor house which is meaningless; and the site of a liquor-house in the midst of gods is absurd. The correct reading should be Śrī-mandira-gṛha, i.e., house of Śrī-mandira or Viṣṇu.

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“ Either to the north or the east, a burial or cremation ground shall be situated; but that of the people of the highest caste shall be to the south of the city. Heretics and caṇḍālas shall live beyond the burial grounds. Families of workmen may in any other way be provided with sites befitting their occupation and field work.

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“ There shall be a water-well for every ten houses.”²

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² Arthaśāstra, Book II, Ch. IV.

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It will be manifest from the above that, in Kauṭilya’s scheme, it is the streets, and not padavinyāsa, that divide out the city, unlike the plan of the Śilpa Śāstras. Kauṭilya seems to have realised in his metropolis Pāṭaliputra his ideals of site-planning as set forth above.

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Śukra’s site-planning is different. Unlike Kauṭilya, he provides for the Sabhā or the Council house in the centre of the capital (sabhāmadhyām rājadhānīm)¹ and the royal palace in the midst of the council buidlings (rājagṛham sabhāmadhyam).² The court and the Śilpa-Śālā or the museum (literally, hall of arts), both are to be stationed to the north of the palace.³ Leaving a space of hundred cubits from the palace (probably towards its north) the ministers, the clerks, the councillors, and officers should be located in detached lodges. Two hundred cubits away from the palace, either to the north or to the east, are allowed sites for the military cantonments. Śukra observes a certain order in the allocation of different classes of military barracks. First, the important personages (prakṛtayah), then the ordinary people, next the officers, then the commanders of the army, then the infantry, then the cavalry, the attendants of horses and elephants, next the guns and ordnances, the mares, the constabulary and sentry thereafter, lastly foresters; this is the order to be followed in the location of their sites or quarters. Wealth and birth were the determining factors in the distribution of sites for dwellings of the citizens round about the royal palace. The inns and restaurants should be well protected and provided with ample supply of water. The cognate houses, their relation being determined by similarity of business or identity of caste, shall be congregated together in a row.¹ In the towns or villages, the buildings should face either the north or the east. In the market place, stalls or shops are to be placed according to the classes of commodities. The best plots along the side of the highways should be distributed with regard to the wealth and power of the residents. In this way the king should plan both the town and the grāma.²

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¹ Śukranītisāra, Ch. I, l. 431.

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² Ibid, l 435.

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³ Ibid, l 457.

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¹ Mr. Sarkar's rendering of the line 514 is obviously incorrect.

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² Śukranītisāra, Ch. 1, ll. 508—518.

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The author of the Agni Purāṇa³ has his own scheme of folk-planning. He locates the goldsmiths in the south-east corner of the town; the professional dancers and musicians, the harlots in the south; the stage-managers, the carriage-men, and the fishermen in the southwest. He gives away the western sites for the dwellings of those who deal in cars and chariots, weapons, and cutlery; the liquor merchants, the officers and employees are provided with quarters in the north-west. The northern sites are set apart for the pious people such as the Brāhmaṇs, the Yatis, and the Siddhas. Fruit stalls are situated in the north-east. This completely fills up the outermost blocks. Then in the second round in the east are given sites for the commanding officers of the army. In the south-east, the soldiers' barracks are stationed. In the south is situated the lodge of the superintendent of the women (probably the prostitutes and the court women are meant who are quartered in that direction). The archery is assigned sites in the south-west. And in the west and the north-west shall dwell ministers, the treasurers, and the artisans. The judges, the elite of the citizens, as well as the high officials belonging to the twice-born class should be assigned sites in the nortth and the north-east. Then begins the third annulus. In it, in the east are situated the Kshatriyas; in the south the Vaiśyas; in the west the Śūdras and this finishes the third circle of the sites. Within it the cavalry, the infantry, and the physicians should be situated in all directions." Nowhere in the Agni Purāṇa is it mentioned where the royal castle will be erected. But from the peculiarity of the scheme it appears that it will be located in the central part of the town surrounded by the cavalry as mentioned above. "To the east of the town," the Agni Purāṇa goes on, "should be stationed king's men in disguise. To the south the cremation ground is placed; to the west is located the pinjrapole or the cattle sheds; and to the north shall be allocated the house-plots of the husbandry." It seems that the above quarters are without the town proper. For, they cannot be adjacent to the royal compound for obvious reasons, nor is there any room for them in the outer fringe of the town which has been already disposed of. The cremation ground is generally located outside the town. Again it is not reasonable that the agriculturist who has to ply their ploughs, from day to day, in the fields lying without the town should be provided with quarters inside the town. Besides, the disguised officers will watch the approach of the enemy. For these reasons, I think, they are placed outside the town and, yet, given the protection of the town-fort. This is confirmed by the next sentence wherein it is laid down that villages will be set up in the corners without the town where Mlecchas will be quartered. There should be a symmetrical distribution of a good number of markets.

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³ Ch. 106, ll. 12—27.

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The Mayamata makes an exhaustive treatment of the proper distribution of the residential quarters interspersed with market stalls (antarā-paṇakam). It particularly deals with these inter-residential stalls and the articles sold in them.¹ It lays down: "Whether in small towns or large cities, I shall now deal with residential sites and the shops situated in their midst. Within the processional boulevard circumscribing the city are situated in rows the houses of the merchants. To the south but a little removed to the sides are given sites to the weavers; to the north are the residential plots of the wheelwrights (carters ? chakriṇām). Along the processional street are settled the various artisans and mechanics, e.g., blaksmiths, or even day-labourers. Inter-residential market-stalls may be set up along the roads encircling the chambers of Brahmā and those stalls should be reserved for fruits and betel-leaves. In the quarters held sacred for the deities from Īśāna to Mahendra should be erected the stalls for fish and meat, dry articles, and vegetables. The stalls for staple foods and edibles are fixed in sites from Mahendra to Agni; and from Agni to Gṛhakshata are raised sheds for basins and pottery. From Gṛhakshata to Nirṛti should be allocated the shops for brass and bronze. The cloth shops are set up in the quarters from Pitṛs to Pushpadanta; and from the latter to Vāyu should be laid out the mart for rice and paddy. From Vāyu to Bhallāṭa quarters are meant for the drapers (tailors and cutters?) and those who deal in salt and oils. From that to Īśa are situated the shops for perfumeries and flowers. The above are the nine intervening shopping sheds in the outer most sites. But along the roads that are laid out within the boulevard are stationed the stalls and shops of jewels and precious stones, gold, clothes, drugs and condiments such as mañjiṣṭhā, pepper, pipal, ginger, honey, ghee, oil and the like, medicines, and these in all directions. Then he makes allocation of the sites for divine edifices consecrated to various deities. In all directions are allowed all sorts of habitats. About two hundred daṇḍas to the east or to the north-east of the town the cottages for the caṇḍalas and the washermen should be raised as in the settlement of a village. The above is the scheme of site-planning of an ordinary town. But in a port or commercial emporium such inter-residential shopping stalls are not desirable; but on the other hand to secure economic efficiency, they should be concentrated, being set up in continuous rows on either sides of the highways. In the other types of cities, every thing should be arranged with regard to the peculiar needs and interests of them.”¹ The rest is to be distributed exactly as in the village.

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¹ Can it be inferred that the class of people dealing with the articles lived in the cottages adjoining the stalls ? Vide Chapter IX,

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¹ Mayamatam, Ch. 10, ll 154—83, .

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Now the typical planning of sites in a village is described in the Mayamata in this way:— When the entire city is divided into 81, 64, or 49 plots, there is a reclassification of the divisions into zones, one within the other. The innermost zone is called Brahmā; the next annular zone is called Daivika; the third ring of plots is known as Mānuṣa; and the fourth annulus of plots, the outermost one, goes by the name of Paiśācha. The houses of the Brāhmaṇs lie in rows in the second and third zones. The artisans and the labouring class should be provided with quarters in the outermost zone. Here too there may be settlement of the highest three classes, if necessary and here again the deities are set up, beginning from the east. In the central quadrangle the shrine of Brahmā should be placed. In the north-east or south-east corner of this, the town-hall is located and in its north or west should be raised an edifice to Hari. To the south of the town lie the cattle sheds and to the north flower gardens. To the east or west beside the town-gate the hermitages are provided with sites. Tanks, reservoirs, and wells should be distributed all throughout the town. To the right and by the side of the Vaiśyas or trading class are stationed the houses of the Śūdras. In the east or the north, the potters are housed and the barbers as well as other craftsmen are similarly provided with housing plots in those quarters. The fishermen are to settle in the north-west and the butchers are to have sites in the west. The oilmen occupy the northern plots. A little away to the south-east or the north-west of the town or village are fixed the quarters of the architects. Further off, the washermen's hamlets are situated. A kroś (about two miles) to the east the cottages of the sweepers or methars should be set up; and the wives of the sweepers enter the villages early in the morning to clear off the nightsoil and the refuse. The cremation ground is generally located about five hundred daṇḍas to the north-east." The royal palace, according to Mayamuni, should occupy an eastern site or the quarters of Apa and the royal buildings on the whole extend over one-seventh of the entire city.¹ The royal buildings of Jaipur are said to occupy such a proportion.

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¹ Mayamatam, Chs. 9 and 29.

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Bhoja does not make an exhaustive treatment of this subject but touches only a few salient features: The central sites, according to him, should be reserved for the nobility, the physicians, astrologers, and the pious. The extreme sites are to be apportioned to the Mlecchas or foreigners, the low class people, cruel professions, and the soldiers and the sentinels. The latter's barracks should be pitched by the side of the town-gates; the ministers counsellors should also be relegated to quarters adjoining them, for a king should not live in close proximity of his ministers, because, in that case, he runs the risk of being poisoned with sinister counsels. The quarters of the officers should be systematically distributed throughout the city. The elephant should not be stationed towards the centre nor the horse in the outskirts. Neither the infantry nor the nobility and the ministers should have their quarters very far off from the royal palace. Lest enemy spies find scope for their work, Bhoja is against installing theatres or libraries (colleges ?) within the compound of the royal buildings.

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The general feature that is conspicuous in all the foregoing plans of allocating sites is that generally in the central part of the town all the public buildings of importance, such as the royal palace, the court, the town hall, the temple, the council house, and the like, are located, giving a stately effect to the city and centralising its corporate life. But the plan suggested in the Matsya Purāṇa, contrary to all foregoing plans, aims at decentralisation. "There should be planted four rectilinear streets. These are the two cross-streets meeting at the centre of the fort. At the end of one street should be erected the holy shrine and the royal palace should stand at the terminus of another. The court should be placed at the extremity of the third and the fourth terminates at the arched gateway of the town."¹ But for the absurdity of a gate standing at the centre of the fort, all the four structures could have been supposed to be situated at the central part at the crossing of the two streets; for, such a configuration would have as well answered the des-

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¹ Matsya Purāṇam, Ch. 217, ll. 19-23.

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चतस्रश्च तथा तत्र कार्यास्तथतवीथयः ।
एकस्मिंश्च वीथये देववेश्मभवेद् दृढम् ॥ १०
वीथये च द्वितीये च राजवेश्म विधीयते ।
धर्माधिकरणं कार्यं वीथये च तृतीयके ॥ ११
चतुर्थे त्वथ वीथये गोपुरञ्च विधीयते ।

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cription. As it is, the buildings cannot be otherwise than standing at the termini of the cross-streets. The above does not indicate a serious deviation from the general scheme, in as much as the royal palace and the holy shrine are nowhere recommended to stand side by side. Barring the court, therefore, all other important public buildings are required to be located in close proximity to the royal castle. For, "to the south of the royal palace, the treasury should be placed. Further south the elephants should have their sheds facing the east or the north. The arsenal is to occupy a site to the south-east of the royal buildings, while workshops (karmaśālā) are also erected in the same quarters. Houses of the ministers, Vedic scholars, the (court) physicians, and the storehouse are provided with sites to the left of the royal mansions where also the royal priest is furnished with quarters."¹ I am inclined to suppose that the foregoing scheme sets forth the planning of the sites of the fort within the city, not that of the sites of the city itself.

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¹ Matsya Purāṇam, Ch. 217, ll. 29—36.

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I need here only refer to the various plans which the author of the Mānasāra projects in connection with the lay-out of sites in different villages. It should be remembered that the planning of villages tally in salient features with that of the cities in ancient India, a peculiarity nowhere to be met with in Europe. The allocation of different wards to different classes of people was also followed in Anahilavada Pattana in northern Guzrat as we read in the Kumārapālacharita of Jinamandava (A.D. 1436). The description which runs as follows refers to a period in the middle of the twelfth century: "Anahilapura was 12 kos (or 18 miles) in circuit within which were many temples and colleges, 84 chawks or squares, 84 bāzārs or market places; with mints for gold and silver coinage. Each class had its separate muhalla or quarters as had each description of merchandise, *i.e.*, hastidantas or elephants' tusks, silk purples, diamonds, pearls, etc., etc.; each had its separate chawk. There was one bazar for sarraps or money changers; one for perfumes and unguents; one for physicians; one for artisans; one for goldsmiths; one for silversmiths; there were distinct muhallas for navigators, for bards and geneologists. Eighteen varṇas or castes inhabited the city. All were happy together. The palace groaned with a multitude of separate buildings, for the armoury, for elephants, horses, and chariots, for the public accountants and officers of State. Each kind of goods had its separate maṇḍav or mart, where the duties of export, import, and sale were collected as for spices, fruits, drugs—camphor, metals and every thing costly of home or foreign growth.”¹ Dr. Radha Kamal Mukherji remarks in the same paper: “The house groups, quarters or muhallas are indeed characteristic of all Indian cities. The city of Agra, for instance, is divided into so many as 212 muhallas the names of which are derived either from the caste of the inhabitants, or from some well-known building, or from a prominent resident of former days. In the cities of Bombay Presidency, each of these wards is often a separate village with its own headman, accountant, servants, and husbandsmen whose lands lie outside the city-walls. There are bāgs or gardens, temples and mosques interspersed in the central wards and the suburbs or pārās. The cloth, the grain, the fruit, and the meat markets are separate and are held in open spaces shaded with rows of nimba, kadamba and banian trees. The sāhāgunj or general market is often in the centre of the city as in Ahmednagar. Gardens are still sometimes the property of a ward and are maintained by voluntary subscriptions of the residents.”²

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¹ Vide the Modern Review, August, 1920.

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² Cf. the description of Kaveripumpaddinam as compiled by Mr. Ayyar. He gives there a detailed account of the planning of sites and folks in the city.

Linked texts (9)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Agnipurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Matsyapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Mānasāra — Sanskrit
Mayamata — Maya, Sanskrit
Pāṭaliputra
Agra
Aṇahilavāḍa-Paṭṭana
Kumārapālacarita (Prākṛtadvyāśraya) — Hemacandra, Prakrit