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The Beginnings of Buddhist Art and Other Essays in Indian and Central-Asian Archaeology c5.s5: V

The Beginnings of Buddhist Art and Other Essays in Indian and Central-Asian Archaeology c5.s5

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English

V

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This is not all. The sculptors of the second century verify our hypothesis not only in what they reproduce and in what they imitate of the works of the past : we may maintain that they do this, also, indirectly, in what they innovate. However unreflecting and mechanical their submission to custom may have been, the forced absence of the protagonist from the scenes of his own biography could not help but inconvenience them considerably. Let the career of the Blessed One be no more than a monotonous tissue of conversations more full of edification than movement ; yet only a small number of episodes allowed of being portrayed independently of the principal personage. With the aid of what subjects were the artists to cover the numerous medallions, the long stretches, or the high gates of the stūpa balustrades? The first expedient of which they

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articles (Z. D. M. G. 1908, vol. LXII, pp. 648 and sqq.) thought he recognised in a defective photograph of this bull with the hanging tongue the image of a wild boar, and he built up a whole theory on this mistake : it suffices to refer the reader anxious to clear up this matter with his own eyes to BURGESS, Anc. Mon. Ind., p. 127.

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bethought themselves was to turn to the previous existences of the Master, at the time when under all animal forms, and later under all social conditions, he was qualifying by means of perfections for the final attainment of the Bodhi. Thereby we explain why the sculptors of Barhut preferred to dip into this treasure of tales and fables (¹). In treating this new matter they were no longer trammelled, as when illustrating the last life of the Master, by a custom which had been elevated into a law. Accordingly they have no scruples in representing the Bodhisattva in each scene, and it is with a perfect liberty of mind that, at the time of his penultimate terrestial existence, they give to Viçvantara the features which they so jealously abstained from lending to Siddhârtha (cf. above, p. 6). Representations of jâtakas are far from being unknown at Sânchî : but the decorators of the gates had recourse once again to another stratagem in order to slip between the links of tradition. It goes without saying that in all the scenes posterior to the Parinirvâna the absence of the figure of the Blessed One became perfectly justified and at the same time ceased to be an inconvenience to the artist. Thus, they soon took pleasure in cultivating this part of the Buddhist legend. According to all probability they began by illustrating the famous « war of relics », which the death of the Blessed One nearly precipitated. Encouraged, apparently, by this trial, they did not fear to attack even the cycle of Açoka and to represent at one time his useless pilgrimage to the stûpa at Râmagrâma, and at another his solemn visit to the tree of the Sambodhi (²). Thus, under the pressing incentive of necessity, the native school, incapable of openly shaking off its slavery, had artificially created for itself a double means of escape, in the legends previous to the last renaissance or posterior to the final death of Buddha. For our part, we do not doubt that, if it had continued to develop normally and according to its own rules, we should have seen the number of these sham historical pictures or these illustrations of popular stories increase at the expense of the old fund of pious images.

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¹ See below, Representation of Jâtakas on the Bas-reliefs of Barhut (Essay II).

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² See below, Eastern Gate of Sânchî, pp. 78-79 and 108-109.

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It is no longer a secret to anyone that the regular sweep of this evolution was brusquely interrupted by a veritable artistic cataclysm. The Hellenized sculptors of the north-west, strangers to the native tradition of Central India, satisfied to the full; and even outwent, the wishes of their Buddhist patrons by creating for their use the Indo-Greek type of Buddha. Immediately their colleagues of the low country, seduced by this wonderful innovation, greeted with no less enthusiasm than the laity the rupture of the magic charm which had weighed so heavily and so long upon the ancient Buddhist school. We have already remarked upon the fact of the rapid diffusion of the new type (p. 7) : it is now clear to us that its adoption did not come into direct collision with any dogmatic prejudice. Always docile interpreters of current ideas, the texts set themselves henceforth to guarantee, by the aid of apocryphal traditions or an abundance of miracles, the authentic resemblance of those portraits whose possibility they were a moment ago denying (¹). The reason is that, in reality, the new mode (see pl. IV) did not expressly infringe any ritualistic prohibition: it did nothing but overthrow the artistic procedures of composition, and the bonds which fell were of a purely technical kind. We have seen clearly enough how the image-makers of the basin of the Ganges had slowly suffered the spider's web of custom to weave itself around them, and how, not daring to tear it apart, they had already endeavoured to free themselves from it. Under the stroke of the revelation which came to them from Gandhâra their emancipation was as sudden as it was complete: but even through this unexpected development we are prepared to follow up the test to which we have submitted our theory and from which it seems to us to have so far issued with honour.

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¹ By apocryphal traditions we mean those relative to the statue of sandal wood, carved even during the life-time of Buddha and attributed by Fa-hian (trans. LEGGE, p. 56) to Prasenajit of Çrâvastî, and by Hiuan-tsang (trans. Stan. JULIEN, I, pp. 283 and 296) to Udayana of Kauçâmbî, whose example had only been imitated by Prasenajit (cf. BEAL, Records, I, p. XLIV and 235; II, p. 4). As regards the miracles, see those which are related to us concerning the image of the temple of Mahâbodhi by Hiuan-tsang (trans. Stan. JULIEN, I, p. 465; BEAL, II, p. 120) and Târanâtha (trans. SCHIEFNER, p. 20).

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The history of the ancient régime in Buddhist art prior to the Gandhârian revolution may, in fact, be summed up somewhat as follows. We have every reason to suppose that there was, first, from the fifth century onwards, local production at the four great centres of pilgrimage, and conveyance into the interior of India, of rude delineations copying the « sacred vestiges » actually still visible above ground in the sites of the miracles. It was these naturally unpeopled tableaux which, thanks to time and distance, ended by being regarded as systematic representations of the four principal episodes in the life of the Blessed One, and which, joined to some routine variations composed in accordance with the same formula, served, before as well as after Açoka (middle of the third century B. C.), for the decoration of religious foundations; finally, on the monuments of the second century (still before our era)

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we remark already tentatives towards freedom from the tyranny of the ancient customs by recourse to subjects previous or subsequent to the last existence of Buddha. However, the school of the north-west comes on the scene. By reason of the very fact that it has been almost entirely removed from these traditional influences, it must, in our system, present characteristic signs quite different from those of the ancient school. Now, the conclusions of an extensive study which we have long dedicated to the Greco-buddhist bas-reliefs, seem to have conspired in favouring, point for point, the reverse of the preceding propositions. What we have observed at Gandhâra is, first, the almost total disappearance of legendary scenes later than the cycle of the *Parinirvâna*, as also a marked diminution in the number of *jâtakas*; in the second place, there is an indefinite multiplication of episodes borrowed from the youth or the teaching career of the Master, whose corporeal image occupies now the centre of all the compositions; finally and correspondingly, there is an extreme rarity of symbolical representations (¹). In any case — and this is our concluding argument — the old emblems do not disappear completely. Not only at Gandhâra, but even on the latest productions of mediæval India, not to mention the Lamaïst images of the present day, these survivals of a former age continue to manifest themselves. If the *stûpa* is regarded as having on nearly all the new representations of the *Parinirvâna* become superfluous, the Tree of Knowledge never fails to rear itself behind the Buddha of the *Sambodhi*, whilst the wheel between the two gazelles, either back to back or face to face, continues to mark the throne of his First Preaching (see pl. VI, 2). And thus the decline of Buddhist art is linked to its most distant visible origins, the only ones (need we specify?), which have been taken into consideration here (¹).

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¹ Cf. *Art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra*, pp. 266, 270, 427 etc.

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Such, at least, is the theory which we could not refrain from submitting to the appreciation of Indianists. Taken altogether, it is only an attempt at synthesis, an effort first to coordinate logically, then to organize in accordance with the laws of an historical development, a series of facts already known. In this sense there is not one Buddhist archæologist, commencing with Fergusson and Cunningham, who has not contributed to it, and it may be found more or less devoid of originality. Our whole ambition would be precisely that it should give, when read, the impression of being already public property. That would be the best of symptoms; for none is better adapted to produce a belief that — except for the retouches which the progress of research will inevitably give to it — it is destined to endure.

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(¹) Cf. *Art gréco-bouddhique*, figg. 208 and 209 and *Iconographie bouddhique de l'Inde*, figg. 29 et 30 : the latter is a representation of the *Parinirvâna*, still surmounted by a *stûpa*.

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The elements of this plate have been obligingly sketched by M. LEMOINE, Professor of Drawing at the Lycée at Quimper, from the following publications : A. CUNNINGHAM, Coins of Ancient India (London, 1891); VINCENT SMITH, Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Oxford, 1906); D. B. SPOONER, A new find of punch-marked coins (in Arch. Surv. of India, Annual Report, 1905 6, pp. 150 sqq.) : cited respectively as C., Sm., Sp..

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A. 1 (C., pl. XI, 2, 4); 2 (C., pl. I, 1, 5, 6); 3 (Sp., pl. LIV a, 3, 14); 4 (Sm., pl. XIX, 13): variants of the lotus, the symbol of the miraculous birth of the Bodhisattva. The most characteristic form, with eight petals, is found on the coins of Erân (no. 1) : we give here in addition two fantastic, but current, forms — composed of three parasols and of three « taurine » or nandi-padas, framed (no. 2), or not (no. 3), in petals — and one quite stereotyped form (no. 4).

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5 (C., pl. I, 23 or pl. II, 8 etc.); 6 (Sm., pl. XX, 8); 7 (C., pl. II, 20); 8 (Sm., pl. XIX, 15, etc.) : variants of the « taurine » or nandi-pada symbol, denoting the zodiacal sign Taurus, the Bull (Skt. Tâvura), which, during the month of Vaiçâkha (April-May), presided over the Nativity of the Bodhisattva. The most simple form, and the starting-point of the development, is composed of a point surmounted by a crescent (no. 5). In the most elaborate form a vardhamâna, a triçûla, or even a triratna have in turn been detected : we do not perceive any reason why in becoming more complicated it should have changed its name and signification.

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9 (C., pl. III, 2); 10 (C., pl. I, 26); 11 (C., pl. III, 3); 12 (C., pl. III, 2) : from the Buddhist point of view these four sacred animals typify respectively, the elephant the Conception, the bull the (date of the) Nativity, the horse the Great Departure, and the lion, generally, the « lion among the Çâkyas » (Çâkya-simha, that is Çâkya-muni).

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B. 1 (C., pl. I, 1); 2 (Sm., pl. XIX, 11); 3 (C, pl. II, 7-8); 4 (Sm. pl. XX, 5): variants of the tree of the Perfect Illumination (Sambodhi). Nos. 1 and 2 present fairly well the form of the leaf of the açvattha, or ficus religiosa; the foot of the tree is always surrounded by a railing.

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C. 1 (Sm., pl. XIX, 1, etc.); 2 (C., pl. III, 13): variants of the Wheel of the Law (Dharmacakra). On no. 2 it is surrounded by small parasols.

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D. 1 (C., pl. I, 4, 5); 2 (Sp., pl. LIV b, 1, 13); 3 (C, pl. II, 15); 4 (Sm., pl. XX, 11, 12) : variants of the stûpa, or tumulus, of the Parinirvâna. Later the form of no. 1 was mistaken for a bow with its arrow; we seem to recognize in origin a stûpa crossed by the staff (yaṣṭi) of its parasol (chattra) : we need only compare the parasols which enter into the composition of the lotuses of nos. A. 2 and 3.

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BUDDHIST SYMBOLS ON ANCIENT INDIAN COIN S

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The three Sânchî panels belong to the western gate of the great stûpa, B to the front façade, C and D to the rear : the photographs were kindly lent to us by Mr. J. H. MARSHALL. — The stele of Amarâvatî is reproduced from the photograph published by FERGUSSON, Tree and Serpent Worship, 2nd ed., pl. XCIV.

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B. Miracle of the Perfect Illumination (Sambodhi), near to Gayâ ; represented by a tree above a throne. Note the characteristic leaf of the tree of Çâkya-muni (cf. pl. I, B).

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C. Miracle of the First Preaching, or Putting in motion the Wheel of the Law (Dharma-cakra-pravartana), near to Benares ; represented by a wheel above a throne.

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D. Miracle of the Final Extinction (Parinirvâna), near to Kuçinagara ; represented by a stûpa.

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Worshippers — on the earth human and of both sexes, in the air divine — press round each of these symbolical representations. Those in the top corners of B 1 and D 1 have a human bust terminating in the stereotyped body of a bird. We are not long in remarking the constant contrast, both in the material objects and in the persons, between the still heavy and clumsy style of Sânchî and that of Amarâvatî, almost too elegant and affected. What here concerns us most is that the fundamental identity of the subjects is not in the slightest degree compromised by these differences of treatment.

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D

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C

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B

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THE THREE LAST GREAT MIRACLES

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1. AT SĀNCHĪ

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2. AT AMARĀVATĪ

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1. The three Gandhâra panels are reproduced : A¹, from a photograph taken by the author in the Lahore Museum; A², from a photograph in the Lahore Museum, copy kindly lent by Prof. A. A. MACDONELL; A³, from a photograph by Mr. A. E. CADDY in the Calcutta Museum. — 2. The three Amarâvatî panels : A¹, from a photograph taken by the author in the Madras Museum (Cf. BURGESS, Buddhist Stûpa of Amarâvatî, pl. XXVIII, 1); A², from FERGUSSON’S photograph, Tree and Serpent Worship, pl. LXV, 3; A³, from the same source, pl. XCVI, 3.

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The locality of the scene is in all cases Kapilavastu. We shall not here insist further on the differences of type, costume, furniture and ornamentation.

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A¹. The Conception (Garbha-avakrânti) : the Bodhisattva descends into the right side of his mother’s bosom in the form of a little elephant. The school of Amarâvatî always places at the four cardinal points of the room the four Lokapâlas, or Guardians of the World; but sometimes, as here, it forgets to represent the elephant, and, as little as at Barhut (CUNNINGHAM, pl. XXVIII, 2) and at Sânchî (see infra, pl. IX, 2, at the top), does it think of making Mâyâ lie in such a manner that she can properly present her right side to the Blessed One. The school of Gandhâra is never guilty of these negligences, which are contrary to the letter of the texts (Art g.-b. du Gandh., I, figg. 149 and 160 a; cf. however ibid., fig. 148, from Amarâvatî).

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A². The Nativity (Jâti) : the Bodhisattva issues from the right flank of his mother, who is standing and holding a branch of a tree. Therefore in both views we see in the centre of the composition Mâyâ standing, with one arm raised, between the gods on the right and her women on the left. But it will be noticed that on this occasion also her attitude is in Gandhâra more rational, leaving free the right hip, by which the child is supposed to issue. As regards the latter, who on the panel at Lahore is perfectly visible, we perceive at Amarâvatî only the imprint of his sacred feet on the cloth, which is held by the four Lokapâlas together, and no longer by Indra alone.

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A³. The Great Departure (Mahâbhinishkramana) : the Bodhisattva leaves his native town on horseback. At Amarâvatî we perceive only the gate of the town (cf. the gates at Sânchî on our pl. VI-VII) and the riderless horse, preceded by a god and followed by a squire holding the parasol. In Gandhâra the indication of the gate has in our reproduction (but cf. Art g.-b. du Gandh., I, fig. 187) been cut away; yet Chandaka is to be seen holding high the parasol, while Yakshas raise the horse’s feet and Mâra, armed with his bow, stands at its head. Above Chandaka, again, is seen a half-length figure of Vajrapâni, armed with his thunderbolt, and above Mâra, between two divinities, the personification (recognizable by the turreted crown) of the town of Kapilavastu. Finally and above all, the Bodhisattva is this time shown on the back of his horse.

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A3

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A2

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A1

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THE FIRST GREAT MIRACLE

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(CONCEPTION, NATIVITY OR VOCATION)

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1. IN GANDHĀRA

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2. AT AMARĀVATĪ

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The sources of the various pieces are as follows : 1. A. Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin, (from a photograph lent by Dr. BURGESS) ; B. British Museum ; C-D. Lahore Museum (from photographs by the author). 2. Stele in the Madras Museum (Cf. BURGESS, Amarāvatī, pl. XLI, 6), from a photograph lent by M. V. GOLOUBEW. 3. Stele in the Calcutta Museum, from a photograph by the author.

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A. Jāti. — 1. The Nativity is here represented according to the usual formula of Gandhāra. 2. At Amarāvatī the Jāti has here been replaced by the Mahābhinishkramaṇa, the physical birth by the spiritual one (cf. pp. 13 and 148, n. 2) ; but this last episode is now conceived in the Gandhārian manner (cf. pl. III, A³) — 3. The panel of Benares groups : on the right, the Nativity, with Indra kneeling to receive the child (notice the analogy of Indra's tiara with that which he wears on pl. IV, 1, A) ; in the middle, the Seven Steps of the Bodhisattva, and above, the Cutting of the Hair and the Farewell to Chandaka.

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B. Sambodhi. — 1. The Illumination is here symbolized by the assault of Māra (Māra-dharshaṇa) and his army (cf. Art g.-b. du Gandh., I, fig. 201). 2. At Amarāvatī this army is no longer represented, except by three dwarf Yakshas in front of the throne : it is the daughters of Māra who now play the principal rôle in the scene of the temptation. We shall remark the omission of the Bodhi-druma and the absence of the bhūmi-sparça-mudrā. — 3. At Benares, on the other hand, we find again, in addition to the same feminine and demoniacal persons, these two essential elements, namely the indication of the tree and the gesture of taking to witness the Earth, whose figure is only half seen.

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C. Dharma-chakra-pravartana. — We shall notice likewise that, for his First Preaching, the Buddha of Gandhāra and of Amarāvatī has not yet adopted the gesture consecrated to teaching (cf. no. 3 C.). On the other hand, we see on no. 1 C the wheel and a gazelle, and on no. 2 C two gazelles. If from no. 3 C (where, by an exception, Buddha is seated in European fashion) these accessories are absent, the omission is repaired on other stelæ of the same school (cf. Iconogr. bouddh. de l'Inde, I, fig. 29, and BURGESS, Anc. Mon. India, pll. 67-68).

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D. Parinirvāṇa. — 1. The episode of the Death of the Master is treated in accordance with the usual formula, including the despair of Vajrapāṇi, the grief of the Mallas and the Gods, and the ultimate conversion of Subhadra. 2. The curious circumstance is that on this point the school of Amarāvatī has remained obstinately faithful to the ancient device of the Stūpa (cf. pl. II, D) ; nevertheless, the entrance through the railing is now adorned with a standing figure of Buddha. — 3. Finally, we shall notice, even more clearly than in the other compartments, that on the stelæ of Benares the image of the Blessed One tends to invade the whole disposable space to the detriment of the attendants : instead of legendary the scene becomes iconographic.

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1. IN GANDHĀRA

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2. AT AMARAVATI

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3. AT BENARES

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