South Indian Bronzes: A Historical Survey of South Indian Sculpture with Iconographical Notes Based on Original Sources c9.83

Language: English

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The pancha louha images all of a Saivaite character found in the ruins of a Siva Devale in Polonnaruwa in Ceylon and now deposited in the Ceylon Museum are important documents indispensable for the study of these bronzes.² In fact the figure of Sundaramurti, one of these finds (Plate XXII), undoubtedly claims to be one of the best specimens of its kind which it is difficult to match with any example from the main land. Questions have been raised as to whether these images were imported from India or made locally by Ceylonese sculptors.³ Dr. A. Willey, F. R. S., late Director of the Colombo Museum, has asserted that "they are Polonnaruwa bronzes for better or worse" and are not the works of Tamil craftsmen. It cannot be contested that Buddhism of Ceylon has laid the foundations of a very interesting school of sculpture both in stone and metal and that for several centuries artists both in metal and stone have flourished in Ceylon. But it will be impossible to associate the Saiva images from Polonnaruwa with the local artists of Ceylon brought up in the traditions of Buddhist art. On the other hand the peculiar character and subject of the images forbid any supposition that they could be the works of artists other than those well versed in Saiva iconography, and the rules of image-making specially connected with the same.

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Although various Buddhist text books for sculptors have been found in Ceylon, none of the South Indian manuscripts of the *silpasastras* have been discovered there.¹ Besides the influence of Saivaism never spread among the Ceylonese who are always referred to as " *Sivadrohis* " or the 'enemies of Siva' in the Chola inscriptions. The remnants of the Siva temple at Polonnaruwa seem to represent the only centre of a non Buddhistic cult in Ceylon and it is in fact the only Saivaite colony there. That Saivaism never obtained a permanent footing in Ceylon will appear from the nature of the political relationship between the chief of Ceylon and the Saivaite princes of the Chola dynasty. The first Chola king who conquered Ceylon was Parantaka I (circ. 906 946) and from such conquest assumed the title of " a veritable Rāma in battle." His conquest does not seem to have acquired much influence and it was Raja-Raja I who brought about the complete subjugation of the whole island of Ceylon about the year 1005, the twentieth year of his reign. He ruled Ceylon through governors appointed by him and is said to have presented the revenue of a village in Ceylon to the Tanjore temple (*Tanjore District Gazetteer*, p. 31). This supremacy continued up to the time of Kulottunga I (1073) when a rising took place and the Cholas were completely driven out from Ceylon. Of the Tamil records found in Polonnaruwa, those of Rajendra Chola I and of Adhirajendra (circ.

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1070-1073) show that these kings made some benefactions to the Saiva temple, there, which was known as *Vanvanama-devisvaram Udaiyar*. The first part of the name suggests that the temple must have been founded by or at least come into existence at the time of a queen called Vanavanmadevi, probably a Chola princess. A few short epigraphs found close to these Saiva temples refer to donors whose names show their connection with the South Indian towns Tiruppavanam,¹ Tiruvaiyaru and Chidambaram. After throwing off the Chola yoke in 1073 the Ceylonese retaliated by invading the Chola country during the reign of Raj Rajadhiraj II (1111-78). Led by their General Dandanath they captured and plundered Ramesvaram and marched upon Madura and burnt some villages in the Puttukkotai taluk. An inscription found in Arpakkam near Conjivaram gives a vivid picture of the dismay of the Cholas and describes the ravages of ' very wicked and vicious men,' ' all sinners against Siva' who had ' removed the sacred door of the temple at holy Ramesvaram, obstructed the worship and carried away all the temple treasures" (*Tanjore District Gazetteer*, page 32). A desecration of such an important Saivaite shrine could hardly be expected from any invaders with the slightest leaning for Saivaite worship.² It was obvious that in spite of a continued Chola occupation for nearly seventy years the Ceylonese had not developed much predilection for the Saiva religion.

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These " sinners against Siva," then, could hardly have encouraged local sculptors to cast images of a Saivaite character. The shrines of Siva found at Polonnaruwa were most probably founded by the Cholas for the benefit of the colony of Tamil Saivaites who emigrated to the north part of the island probably at the time of Raja-Raja I, and the Saivaite bronzes which have been discovered in the Siva Devale and adjoining sites at Polonnaruwa were in all probability imported from the mainland, at the time when the Saivaite shrines were built, or presented to the temples by donors from South India in later times. There is no doubt however that these beautiful examples of Saivaite images which the Chola colonists brought to Ceylon excited the wonder and emulation of the local Sinhalese craftsmen, some of whom attempted to copy some of these models and to reproduce the conventions of its poses and peculiarities without a previous knowledge or training as to its traditional rules and measurements. It would be impossible for any sculptor familiar with the rules laid the Roman world, and the most important events of the reign of Antoninus Pius, are related by his biographer, and the reader will not be sorry to find them here in a more concise form. The reign of Antoninus Pius is marked by the rare advantage of furnishing very few materials for history; which is only another mode of saying that its happiness was complete.

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During the twenty-three years of his administration, the Roman empire was governed by the same invariable maxims of justice and peace. The natives of a vast extent of country were protected by the same laws, and enjoyed the same privileges. The frontiers were defended by the same legions, and the same spirit of moderation and equity prevailed in the councils of the emperor. The death of Antoninus was lamented as a public calamity; and the memory of his virtues was preserved by the gratitude of his subjects, and the imitation of his successor.