Historical Development of Indian Music: A Critical Study c7: Chapter Two: What is Indian Music

Historical Development of Indian Music: A Critical Study c7

Language: English

Chapter Two: What is Indian Music

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THE music that evolved in India and imbibed the spirit and atmosphere of spiritual India, is known as Indian Music. It possesses a synthetic mood and special character of its own, and so it differs from music of other countries. Indian music has off and on been influenced by foreign music and culture, but yet it has preserved its own quality and nature. It has rather embraced all the types and patterns of music of other countries and has absorbed them with a quite new and unifying effect.

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Now, what do we mean by music? The English word music is a derivative from French word ‘muse’. In Sanskrit it is called ‘gāna’, ‘gīti’ or ‘sangīta’. It is a combination of sweet sounds that pleases and soothes the minds of living beings. It originates in the succession of tones that produce agreeable and pleasing sensations. It is, in truth, the man's expression of deeper converse with the innermost spirit, through the medium of tones and tunes. It is the language of living being's deeper soul. It is quite different from the speech sound or the speaking language. The musical sound is possessed of sweet tune, impregnated with divine lustre (lāvaṇya), aesthetic sentiment and mood (rasa and *bhāva*). This *lāvanya* may be compared to the lustre of a jewel or crystal. It is also found in the face of a man or woman, which looks sweet and loving. It can be said to be a symbol that represents the inner essence of man and animal.

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The melodic form (*rāga*) is the soul of music. Now what do we mean by a *rāga*? A *rāga* is a psycho-material object, as it is an objective expression of the subjective feeling of the mind. It is first designed ideally in the mind and then projected outside in material tonal form. And so, in the process of the construction of a *rāga*, both mind and matter act together.

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From the idealistic point of view, a *rāga* is a mind construction and its outward expression is an image of the subjective ideal. Some are of opinion that a succession of notes that designs the melodic form, is quite independent of the mind and it suggests an idea of the melodic patterns in the mind. But the suggestions, says Swāmī Abhedānanda, come through the eyes, through the ears, and through other organs. Those suggestions are not in the state of consciousness at first. They are merely the molecular changes i.e., changes of the molecules and the atoms of the nervous systems and of the brain. And then come the ideas of sensation. At the root they are nothing but motions. The ideas of motion are the elements, out of which the mind substance is built. Elsewhere the Swāmī says again;

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‘Sensations or the vibrations of the external objects which come through the nerves are nothing but suggestions and these suggestions are carried by these nerves to the brain. But the hemispheres of the brain act from considerations, that is, expectations of sensations which will be felt in one way or another.*** These hemispheres are regarded as the seats of emotions, instincts and intelligence which do not exist in animals without hemispheres of the brain’. Modern psychologists explain everything by reflex action of the brain. When we construct a structure of a melody or *rāga*, a reflection of tonal succession or arrangement fleets in the mind in a thought form like an image which produces an impression in the brain. The impression of the *rāga* is again translated into a kind of feeling, and immediately the mind reacts, and through the reflex activities we project the idea of the *rāga* outside in material form which is not a mechanical process, but is conducted and governed by the intelligence that shines behind the mind. The sensation of the *rāga* comes in the form of vibrations or currents of stimuli and it suggests or inspires the artists to create music i.e. *rāga*. Therefore the will-to-create is the cause of manifestation of the *rāga*, and the subjective form manifests as the objective one.

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The nature of a *rāga* is determined by the melodic movement or *varṇa*, which helps to create pleasing and soothing sensations. A rāga is known by its constituent notes or essentials, like sonant (aṃśa or vādī), consonant (saṃvādī), dissonant (anuvādī), initial (graha), final (nyāsa), etc. These are known as determining characteristics. A rāga is sustained and animated by its inherent emotional sentiments and moods of the microtones, which constitute the forms of the tones and tonal successions.

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Nārada (first century A.D.) says in his Śikṣā that both vaidika sāmagāna and laukika (deśī) classical types of music are possessed of ten qualities (guṇas), and music manifests with them in different forms and ways. Bhaṭṭaśobhākara comments : ‘laukikaṃ ca vaidikaṃ ca gānaṃ daśa--guṇa-yuktaṃ tu vaidikaṃ kāryamityuktam’.¹ These qualities (guṇas) enrich and make manifest the rāgas and subsequently the songs or gītis. The ancient musicologists formulate these qualities as,

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¹ लौकिकं च वैदिकं च गानं दशगुणयुक्तम् तु वैदिकं कार्यमित्युक्तम् ।

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(a) Raktam : An absorbing interest or attraction of men and animals for or towards the melody of the song, produced by the combination of lute (Vīṇā) and flute (Veṇu). The combination imparts also the harmonic relations between the successive notes, and thus helps to evolve the melodic form, with pleasing and soothing sensations. The utility of the quality of raktam is to attract the minds of men and animals and to create concentrated attention. The lute and the flute are the most ancient musical instruments and in their harmonic sounds or tunes abides the divine absorbing and enchanting power.

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(b) Pūrṇa : Nārada of the Śikṣā says that the distinct manifestation or presentation of metres (chanda), stanzas (pada) and letters (akṣara) helps to the complete formation of tones and microtones. The latter musicologists are of opinion that full play of the succession of notes in the bass, the medium and the high is known as pūrṇa

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(c) Alaṃkṛta : It is an easy process of manifesting the tonal sound in the bass and the high octaves. It may be said to be the requisite embellishment.

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(d) Prasanna : Easy of recognition.

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(e) Vykta : Expression of the stanzas (pada), fully equipped with music-parts (dhātu), words (kathā), metres (chanda), notes (svara) and melodies (rāga). The commentator Bhaṭṭaśobhākara says that it is essential for the knowledge or perception of different numbers (saṃkhyā) and qualities (guṇa).

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(f) Vikṛṣṭa (or Vikruṣṭa) : Distinct manifestation or clear expression of the words and sentences. Sometimes it means the clear use of notes of high pitch.

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(g) Ślakṣṇa : It is the fine and subtle manifestation of notes in different tempi. It is easily recognizable in the slow (*vilamvita*) tempo.

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(h) *Sama* : Proper settings of the four melodic movements or *varṇas* to rhythm and tempo.

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(i) *Sukumāra* : Easy and graceful manifestation or expression of notes in different octaves (*saptakas*), bass, medium and high.

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(j) *Mādhuryya* : Natural, graceful and sweet expression of stanzas (*pada*), letters (*akṣara*) and notes (*svara*). It is known as the graceful shining lustre i.e. *lāvaṇya* or *lālitya*. It is a kind of quality (*guṇa*) of an object. As for example, a precious stone possesses a shining lustre of its own, and it is the ‘*lāvaṇya*’ of the stone. As an intelligent face of a man is marked by a glow, so the sweet and orderly arranged rhythmic pattern of the notes of a *rāga* creates an inspiring sensation, which is known as ‘*lāvaṇya*’ or lustre.²

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व्यक्तं पूर्णं प्रसन्नं च सुकुमारमलं कृतम्।
समं सुरक्तं श्लक्ष्णं च विकटं मधुरं तथा॥
दत्ते सुगंथा गीते तव व्यक्तं स्फुटैः स्वरैः।
प्रकृतिप्रत्ययैर्युक्तं छन्दोरागपदैः स्वरैः॥
पूर्णं पूर्णायगमकं प्रसन्नं प्रकटात्मकम्।
सुकुमारं कण्ठभवं विस्थानोल्यमलं कृतम्॥
समवर्णलयस्थानं सममित्यभिधीयते।
सुरक्तं वल्लकीवंश-कण्ठध्वन्यै कतायुतम्॥
नीचोच्चद्रुत मध्यादौ श्चालं श्लक्ष्णमुच्यते।
छबेरुचारणाद्युक्तं विकटं भरतादिभिः॥
मधुरं धर्यलावण्यपूर्णं जनमनीहरम्।

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Indian music is always recognized through the presentation of the tonal form of a *rāga* and it tries to present the *rāga* in harmony with words, tune, rhythm, tempo and aesthetic sentiments and moods. So a *rāga* does never appear as a bare outline or skeleton of the tonal arrangements, but it manifests itself as living and dynamic.

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The basic element of music is sound, which is manifested in the from of tones and microtones. And so the Indian psychologists and philosophers say that the *psyche* or soul of music is made up of sound with emotions. The *nāda* or causal sound is the basis or ground of music, and upon this primal ground all the phenomena of Indian music are built. The notes originate from the vibrations that evolve from the vital air or *prāṇa-vāyu*. The seven notes, *ṣaḍja*, *ṛṣabha*, *gāndhāra*, *madhyama*, *pañcama*, *dhaivata* and *niṣāda* evolve out of the vital air, which comes in contact with the different internal parts of the body. It has been described in the *Māndukīśikṣā*:

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Kaṇṭhaduttiṣṭhate ṣaḍja-ṛṣabhaḥ śirasastathā /
Nāsikāyāstu gāndhāra uraso madhyamastathā //
Uraḥ śirobhyāṃ kaṇṭhacca pañcamaḥ svara
ucyate /
Dhaivataśca lalātādvai niṣādaḥ sarvarūpavān /³

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³ कण्ठदुत्तिष्ठते षड्ज-ऋषभः शिरसस्तथा । नासिकायस्तु गान्धारः उरसो मध्यमस्तथा ॥

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In the *Nāradiśikṣā*, *rakta* has been mentioned instead of *vyakta*.

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That is, the note *ṣadja* is born when the vital air is in friction with throat (*kantha*); *ṛṣabha* emanates from the seat of the head (*śira* i.e. mouth); *gāndhāra* from the nose; etc. But the description of the *Nāradiśikṣā* is more rational and tenable. Nārada describes that when the vital air (*prāṇa-vāyu*), rising upwards from the navel base, gets in contact with the junctions of the canal of the throat, it produces sounds of different pitches and they are *ṣadja*, *ṛṣabha*, *gāndhāra* etc.⁴ It is a fact that any kind of sound originates from the friction of two or more things. According to Yoga and Tantra philosophies, the primal will of all living beings resides in the navel base or *mūlādhāra*. That is known as the

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उर: शिरोभां कण्ठाच्च पञ्चम: स्वर उच्यते ।
धैवतञ्च ललाटाच्च निषाद: सर्वकण्ठवान् ॥
—माण्डूकीशिक्षा

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4. In the *Nāradiśikṣā* (7-12), Nārada describes :

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नासां कण्ठमुरुतालुजिह्वादन्तांच संयित: ।
षड् भि: सञ्जायते यस्मात् तस्मात् षड् ज इति स्मृत: ॥
वायु: समुत्थितो नामे: कण्ठशीर्षसमागत: ।
नर्दंयषभमवद् यस्मात् तस्मादृषभ उच्यते ॥
वायु: समुत्थितो नामे: कण्ठशीर्षसमागत: ।
नासा गन्धावह: पुष्टो गान्धारस्तेन हेतुना ॥
वायु: समुत्थितो नामेरीकण्ठशीर्षसमागत: ।
नाभिं प्राप्ती महानादी मध्यमत्वं समश्नुते ॥
वायु: समुत्थितो नामेरीकण्ठकण्ठमिरोहत: ।
पञ्चस्थानोस्थितत्वाच्च पञ्चमं विधीयते ॥
धैवतं च निषादं च वर्जयित्वा स्वरद्वयम् ।
शेषात् पञ्चस्वराभ्यानां पञ्चस्थानीच्छितान् विदु: ॥

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Kāmakalā or Kuṇḍalinī. It is recognized by the Sāṅkhya and Vedānta as the cosmic will or primordial Prakṛti. The Tantra says that the divine will remains as static and is figuratively described as the sleeping and coiled serpent. The serpent is a symbol of energy. When there originates a will-to-speak or will-to-sing, the vital air intensifies the volume of the will and makes it dynamic. It can be said that the sleeping serpent, Kuṇḍalinī awakens and rises upwards through the canal or passage that passes from the navel base to the throat or mouth. Śāraṅgadeva describes it as the indescribable unmanifested will which passes through different plexes or cakras, in the spinal column and is manifested in the base of the tongue. The plexes or cakras are the levels or different grades of consciousness and when the unmanifested will-to-speak or will-to-sing manifests and rises upwards with the vital power, it gets different sensations or experiences in the levels. The will is the energy and it manifests itself as material sounds of speech and song and takes the forms of words and music.

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The succession of seven notes forms the basic structure of music. Even five or six notes can construct a form of melody which is the soul of music. The notes are of two kinds, placed (śuddha) and displaced (flat or chromatic i.e. komala). The displaced or flat notes are so called because of the shifting positions of the seminotes of the placed (*śuddha*) notes. In the pre-Christian era, we do not find the use of any subtle or seminotes. They evolved or were rather recognized in the beginning of the Christian era. The seminotes or microtones are the subtle notes or tones. They are known as *śrutis*, and Nārada (first century A.D.) first uses these *śrutis* in his *Nāradiśikṣā*. He says,

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Diptāyatā-karuṇānāṃ mṛdu-madhyamayostathā /
śrutīnāṃ yo'viśeṣajño na sa ācārya ucyate //⁵

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⁵ दीप्तायता-करुणानां मृदुमध्यमयोस्तथा । श्रुतीनां योऽविशेषज्ञो न स आचार्य उच्यते ॥

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Nārada admits only five microtones, which were known or used as the genus or *jāti* in the time of Bharata (second century A.D.) of the *Nātyaśāstra*. Regarding the displaced or chromatic (*komala*) notes, Nārada describes *antara* (*gāndhāra*) and *kākalī* (*niṣāda*): ‘*antaraḥ svara-saṃyukta kākalīryatra dṛśyate*’.⁶ Bharata follows him and says : ‘*svara-sādhāraṇam kākalī-antara-svarau*’.⁷ Bharata discovers twentytwo microtones, based upon the five causal microtones or genera (*jātis*) of Nārada. He devises the twenty-two microtones on the length of the wires of two same-sized lutes or Veeṇās, *cala* and *acala* or *dhruva*, and determines four subtle and audible microtonal units that constitute the stuff of the note, *ṣaḍja*. He places the note *ṣaḍja* on the fourth unit. He successfully makes the seventh microtone as the seat or base of the note, *ṛṣabha*, the ninth one, the basis of *gāndhāra*, the thirteenth one, the base of *madhyama*, the seventeenth one, the seat of *pañcama*, the twentieth one, the seat of *dhaivata* and the twenty-second one as the base of the note, *niṣāda*. But this division and allotment of the microtonal bases of the seven (*laukika* or *deśi*) notes were however altered in the nineteenth century and it was made perhaps by a group of Western scholars, like Captain Williard, William Jones and others. It is said that they followed the changed method of the then masters or Ustāds, Hindu and Muslim. Mohammad Rezzā of Patna had also supported this radical change, as he himself altered the current scheme of the classification of the *rāgas*. Some are of opinion that Sir William Jones was the first to change the ancient scheme of the distribution of the microtones. The leading musicians and musicologists of Bengal, Sir S. M. Tagore, Kṣetra Mohana Goswāmī and others had also accepted the newly moulded or modified system of the division of microtones and their bases. The modified scheme has been accepted for the changing taste and temperament of the progressive society, but it should be further tested with a rational outlook.

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⁶ अन्तरः स्वरसंयुक्त काकलीर्यत्र दृश्यते ।

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⁷ Bharata says : ‘स्वरसाधारणं काकलीन्तरस्वरौ’। Kallināth comments : ‘हि यस्मात् कारणात् काकलो विकृतचतुःश्रुतिको निषादः षड्जनिषादयोः षड्जयोः साधारणौ भवेत्तदुभयश्रुतिसम्बन्धित्वेन, अतः कारणात्स्य काकलिनी यत् साधारणं तत् साधारणं विदुः । Bharata says : (*a*) साधारणं नामान्तरस्वरता । कस्मात् ? द्वयोरन्तरस्य तत् साधारणम् । (*b*) काकलीसंज्ञो निषादो, न षड्जः । द्वाभ्यान्तरस्वरत्वात् साधारण्यं प्रतिपद्यते । एवं गान्धारीऽप्यन्तरस्वरसंज्ञा, गान्धारी न मध्यमः । तयोरन्तरस्वरत्वात् । * * * कललात् काकली, झटलादा, चतिसौपालादा, अथवा काचिलात् उभय सम्बन्धत्वात् काकलीसंज्ञा ।

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Regarding the new changes in the allotment of the microtones and their definite seats or bases, Kṣetra Mohana Goswāmī, a noted musician and musicologist of Bengal mentions in his celebrated Bengali work, *Sangītasāra* that the notes, possessed of audible minute seminotes, were placed on the last microtonal bases by the ancient experts. But a close examination will show, he says, that there is less difference of space between ṣaḍja and ṛṣabha than between the notes, niṣāda and ṣaḍja. The frets of a lute (*Veena*) also prove this fact. They show that the space or distance between the notes, ṣaḍja and ṛṣabha is double the space or distance between the notes, niṣāda and ṣaḍja. Perhaps for this reason, the modern lute players (*veeṇkāras*) have determined the seats of the notes (*svarasthānas*) on their last units of microtones.

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It has already been said that during the time of Nārada of the *Śikṣā* (first century A.D.) only two displaced or flat notes were used in the Indian system of music, both in north and south, and they were antara-gāndhāra and kākalī-niṣāda. Bharata also adopted this method, and the result was that the total number of notes, placed (*śuddha*) and displaced (*komala*) was fixed at nine. This method was followed upto the eleventh-twelveth century A.D., and in the beginning of the thirteenth century, the number of the displaced notes was increased to twelve. It was believed so long that the basic note, ṣaḍja and the fifth, pañcama were unchangeable (*avikṛta*) ones. But during Śārṅgadeva's time (early thirteenth century), the two notes, ṣaḍja and pañcama were considered as changing. Śārṅgadeva says that the numbers of unchangeable (*śuddha*) notes are usually seven, but for the shifting positions of the microtones, twelve displaced or flat notes evolved. He says :

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Cyuto'cyuto dvidhā ṣaḍjo dvi-śrutir-vikṛto bhavet /
Sādhāraṇe kākalitve niṣādasya ca dṛśyate //
* * * *
Prāpnoti vikṛtau bhedau dvāviti dvādaśa smṛtāḥ //⁸

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च्युतोऽच्युतो द्विधा षड्जो द्विश्रुतिर्विकृतो भवेत् ।
साधारण्ये काकलित्वे निषादस्य च दृश्यते ॥
साधारण्ये श्रुतिं षड्ज ऋषभः संश्रितो यदा ।
चतुःश्रुतिलमायाति तदेको विकृती भवेत् ॥
साधारण्ये द्विश्रुतिः स्यादन्यतरच्चतुःश्रुतिः ।
गान्धार इति तद् द्वे द्वे निःशङ्केन कीर्तितौ ॥
मध्यमः षड्जवद् वेधात् साधारण्यमाश्रयात् ।
पञ्चमी मध्यमश्रुतिः कैशिके पुनः ॥
मध्यमस्य श्रुतिं प्राप्य चतुःश्रुतिरिति द्विधा ।
धैवतौ मध्यमश्रुतिः सायतश्रुतिः ॥
कैशिके काकलित्वे च निषादस्त्रिचतुःश्रुतिः ।
प्राप्नोति विकृती भेदी द्वाविति द्वादश स्मृताः ॥
—सङ्गीत-रत्नाकर १।३।४०-४५

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Therefore, according to Śārṅgadeva, the numbers of the microtones are 7 (*śuddha*) + 12 (*vikṛta*) = 19. In the middle of the sixteenth century (1550 A.D.), Paṇḍit Rāmāmatya accepted only seven displaced notes and according to him, the total numbers of notes are 7+7=14. He says : (a) ‘*vikṛtaścāpi saptaivetyevaṃ sarve caturdaśaḥ*’⁹ (2.33) (b) ‘*caturdaśa svara hyete rāge rūpe bhavantymi*’¹⁰ (2.65). In the beginning of the seventeenth century, during the time of Paṇḍit Somanāth (1909 A.D.), the number of the displaced note were also seven and they were known as : ‘*mṛdu-sa-sādhāraṇa-ga-antara-ga-mṛdu-ma-mṛdu-pa-kaiśika-ni-kākali-ni*’. But during the time of Veṅkatamakhi (1620 A.D.) the number of the displaced notes was reduced to five only and he says : ‘*svarāḥ pañcaiva vikṛtā iti siddhāntitam mayā*’. So it is found that the system of twelve notes (placed or *śuddha* 7 + displaced or *komala* 5 = 12) was in vogue in the sixteenth-seventeenth century and they are still followed in the modern system of Hindusthānī music.

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⁹ विकृतावापि सप्तैवेत्येवं सर्वे चतुर्दशः । (२।३३)

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¹⁰ चतुर्दश स्वरा ह्येते रागे-रूपे भवन्त्यमी । (२।६५)

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Let us determine the utility and importance of the microtones and their divisions? The microtones are the minute audible tones (*svaras*) and they really determine the definite seats or bases of the tones, their nature of manifestation, their ways of constructing the modes and melodies and even their scales. Some are of opinion that they are useless in the present systems of music, as it is not possible to distinctly manifest them in vocal music, though they are useful in the instrumental music to some extent. But that view is not correct, because the microtonal experience or sensation is essential for the determination of the tonal bases (*svarasthāna*) and consequently the scales and the aesthetic qualities of the *rāgas*. The scale (*mela*, *melakartā* or *thāta*) is the base as well as the fountain-head of various types of melodies. The scales are the melodies or *rāgas* in themselves, and yet they are known as the sources of different *rāgas*. In ancient times, the scales were in the form of the *grāmas* and *grāmarāgas*. Afterwards they were replaced by the *mūrcchanās* or the series of seven ascending notes. In fact, the *mūrcchanās* had their origin in the *grāmas*. In the *Rāmāyaṇa* we also find the use of the *murcchanās* in the *gānas* i.e. *jātirāgagānas*, but the author of the *Rāmāyaṇa* has not mentioned whether the *jātirāgas* evolved from the *murcchanās*, rather it is understood from the text of the *Rāmāyaṇa* that the *jātirāgas* originated from the *grāmas*, *ṣadja*, *madhyama* and *gāndhāra*, and following this, Bharata (second century A.D.) also mentions that the pure and mixed (*śuddha* and *vikṛta* *jātis* or *jātirāgas* evolved from the two current *grāmas*, *ṣadja* and *madhyama*.

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He has not mentioned the name of the gāndhāragrāma, because it was obsolete in his time. However, the use of the murcchanās as the origin (janaka) of the formalized regional tunes or deśi-rāgas was current upto the fourteenth-fifteenth century A.D.

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What is the psychological basis of the emotional sentiments and moods of ths rāgas, in relation to their constituent parts, microtones? It has already been said that in the Nāradi śikṣā (first century A.D.) we first come across the word ‘śruti,’ which determined the forms and intrinsic nature of the grāmarāgas, mentioned by Nārada and the later deśi rāgagitis and rāgas. Nārada says that the persons, who are not acquainted with the microtones and their value, are not worthy of being regarded as experienced teachers: ‘śrutinām yo’viśeṣajño na sa ācārya uchyate’. The microtones, as described by Nārada of the Śikṣā, were given significant names and imbued with special meaning and value. The microtones, as devised by Bharata of the Nāṭyaśāstra were twenty-two in number and they were allotted in the seven notes as: ṣadja 4+ṛṣabha 3+gāndhāra 2+madhyama 4+ pañcama 4+ dhaivata 3+niṣāda 2=22. It has also been mentioned before that these twenty-two microtones of Bharata were designed after the 5 microtones of Nārada, and in the time of Bharata these series of microtnes were known as the genus-species relation or janya-janakasamvandha. Now to make the genus-species, or jāti-vyakti or jāti-śruti scheme of the seven notes explicit, the following chart will be helpful.

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According to Bharata, the seats or bases (svarasthānas) of the seven notes are placed on the last microtonal units and this process seems to be rational and scientific. The five microtones (afterwards jātis or janakas), as has been said before contain some specific and inherent emotional qualities and they are: firmness and

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1. Or mandā.
2. Or raktā.

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glowing nature (*dīptā*), broadness and universality (*āyatā*), compassion and pity (*karuṇā*) softness or slackness (*mṛdu*), and intermediateness or mediant nature (*madhyā*). The microtones, as devised by Bharata, were also given the significant names, like *chandovatī*, *raudrī*, *dayāvatī*, *ramyā* etc. and perhaps they were named after the images of the microtones i.e. *jātis* of Nārada of the *Śikṣā*. As for example, *chandovatī* of Bharata corresponds with *madhyā* of Nārada, and it connotes the idea of order, system or peace; *dayāvatī* corresponds with *karuṇā* and it connotes the idea of compassion; *raudrī* corresponds with *dīptā* and it connotes the idea of firmness, strength or heroism, etc. So, from the psychological standpoint, we find that the microtone, *raudrī* contains or manifests the aesthetic moods of acuteness, cheerfulness, slackness etc. that are identical with the emotional sentiment, *veera* (heroism), as described by Bharata, in his *Nāṭyaśāstra*. In this way it can be shown that all the microtones, making the seven notes (*laukika*) are impregnated with some specific aesthetic sentiment and emotive feeling, which stir and stimulate the minds of men and even animals.

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In fact, the notes and consequently *rāgas* of not only of Indian music, but also of music of all nations of the world, are possessed of dynamic living force. They are not the dead structures of the material sound, but are the embodiment of energy and life. The inspired poets of the sixteenth-seventeenth century composed contemplative dhyānas out of the notes and the rāgas, and the artists drew their colourful visual pictures. Therefore the gross sound or sound-body (śabdamaya-tanu) of music was transformed into divine deity (devamaya-tanu). The worshippers and lovers of music found their solace and peace of mind in the divine music and music was recognized as the greatest and foremost art : ‘na vidyā saṅgītāt paraḥ’.

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Indian music is divided into two main categories, theory and practice—śāstra and sādhanā. The one is suggestive and directive, and the other is the call to action. The one is the way and the other is the end or highest ideal. The theory or theoretical portion of music is again divided into some different phases and they are: grammar (vyākaraṇa), acoustics (śabda-vijñāna), literature (sāhitya), history (itihāsa), iconography (mūrtitattva), psychology (manovijñāna) and philosophy (darśana). All these phases really constitute the entirety of theory. So, by theory of music, we should not mean only the grammar or grammatical portion of music, as it is generally understood by some scholars.

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The grammar of music deals with the questions of sonant (aṃśa or vādī), assonant (saṃvādī), dissonant (anuvādī), the upward and downward movements of the notes (ārohaṇa and avarohaṇa), varṇa, murcchanā, time factor (kāla), etc. of the rāgas.

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The acoustics belong to the science of physics which deals with the phenomena of sound. It determines the distinction between noise and tone, non-periodic and periodic vibrations and their sensations, etc. It deals also with the scientific method of the construction of the musical instruments, the frequencies and ratios of the wire-lengths, situation of the frets, etc. The literature of music deals with the nature and beauty of the musical compositions, their metres, rimes, graces, etc. The history of music deals with the work of collecting the chronological data of music, their origin, developments and manifestations in different countries and among different nations, variations, adjustments and re-adjustments to the taste and temperament of the peoples of different times and geographical regions. The historical aspect of music really supplies a comprehensive idea of music and helps men to get the full vision of musical developments down the ages. The iconography of music deals with the icons or visual forms of the notes and the rāgas, with their corresponding emotional sentiments and moods. It helps men to get knowledge of both the subjective and objective designs and values of music. The psychology of music deals with the psyche or soul of music. It furnishes with the knowledge that every outward manifestation of music is caused by the mind or will-power, which is the real creator of music. So our attention should be concentrated on the creator first and then to the mover of the mind, the prime mover or higher intelligence. The philosophy of music deals with the wisdom or essence of music. It imparts to men a faculty of judgement and intuitive knowledge that make them analyse and understand music as the means to an end.

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Therefore by theory of music, we must not think only of the grammar of music, but also understand that the word conveys all the phases of grammar, science, literature, history, iconography, psychology and philosophy. Only by the practice of these phases of theory or śāstra,, men may attain excellence in music. The duty of the śāstra is to lead to the genuine path of spiritual sādhanā, and when sādhanā gets fruition, men attain in their lives, immortality and everlasting bliss.

Cites (6)

Saṅgītaratnākara — Śārṅgadeva, Sanskrit
Nāṭyaśāstra — Bharata, Sanskrit
Māṇḍūkīśikṣā — Māṇḍūka, Sanskrit
Svaramelakalānidhi — Rāmāmātya 1550, Sanskrit
Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit
Saṅgītasāra (Raghumani Vidyābhūṣaṇa Bhaṭṭācārya) — Raghumani Vidyābhūṣaṇa Bhaṭṭācārya, Sanskrit