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Elements of Hindu Iconography v4.c33: The Dikpalakas

Elements of Hindu Iconography v4.c33

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The Dikpalakas

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ACCORDING to Hindu mythology, the eight quarters of the universe are governed by the eight guardian deities beginning with Indra and hence these eight deities are known by the name of Dikpālakas. These deities are:—

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1. Indra, the lord of the east,
2. Agni, the Lord of the south-east,
3. Yama, of the south,
4. Nirṛuti, of the south-west,
5. Varuṇa, of the west,
6. Vāyu, of the north-west,
7. Kubēra, of the north and
8. Īśāna, of the north-east.

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It might be noticed that all these eight deities held prominent positions in the Vēdic period, long before Viṣṇu and Śiva of the modern Trinity, became supreme in Hindu mythology; and the former are now obliged to be content with the more modest situation of the guardianship of the quarters of the universe. It therefore becomes necessary to trace the history of the degradation, so to speak, of these deities from the exalted positions held by them during the Vēdic times.

Indra

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The word Indra, is derived from Indha, meaning kindler says the Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa. In the Ṛig-vēda he is distinctly mentioned as one born without a fellow : (tvam anapir Indra janushasanadasi) and as one without a rival (aśatrur Indra jajñishē). In the Taittiriya saṃhitā Indra is seen contesting his supremacy with Viṣṇu, the Yajñapurusha. The same Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa mentions that Indra, Agni and Sūrya strove hard to secure the supreme positions among the gods and succeeded : this statement gives us an insight into the origin of the Trimūrtis of the later times. In the Ṛig-vēda Indra is described as the wielder of the vajra (or iron thunderbolt), encompassing the sky and the waters, and reaching up to heaven and is said to have fixed the earth, the luminaries, propped up the sky and so on, and that these acts were all done under the exhilarating influence of the drink quaffed off from three cups. Though praised as unequalled by other gods or mortals, Indra is not a self-existent being but was born of a mother (Ṛig-vēda. x 134, 1).

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It has already been stated that the vajra was shaped for Indra by Tvashtṛi from the bones of Dadhicha. With the vajra he killed the asura named Vṛitra. While he, as the chief of the gods, churned the ocean of milk in company with the asuras, the white elephant named Airāvata, came out of it and this was taken for himself by Indra. The name of the wife of Indra is Indrāṇi or Śachi. In the Mahābhārata, Indra is said to be the father of Arjuna and to have a thousand eyes (or yōnis) spread all over his body because he seduced Ahalya, the wife of the ṛishi Gautama. He is also classed, as we know, as one of the twelve Ādityas.

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It is thus seen how Indra, one of the supreme gods of the Vēdic period, deteriorated into the chief of the minor gods, the leader of the army of the gods and finally into one of the guardian deities of the eight regions. He was receiving from the human beings some sort of worship on earth, but Kṛishṇa was the first to put a stop to it. It was on this occasion that Indra caused havoc in Gōkula by sending down torrents of rain and it was also then that Kṛishṇa protected the cowherds and their belongings by lifting up the Gōvardhana mountain. In spite of Kṛishṇa’s protest against the worship of Indra, it was still existing in the 7th to the 10th centuries of the Christian era.

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The *Śilappadigāram*, that remarkable gem of dramatic epic of the Tamil language, has a chapter describing how the annual festival of Indra was celebrated in Kāvirippūm-paṭṭinam, the metropolis of the Chōḷas: it states that the festival began on the Paurṇimā of the solar month Vaiśākha and was continued for twenty-eight days. The date of this work has been determined to be the middle of the eighth century A.D. In an inscription belonging to the reign of Parāntaka Chōḷa I to be found in Toṇḍamānārrūr near Kaḷahasti, mention is made of the details of the arrangements made for celebrating the festival for Indra. The custom of offering *pūjā*, and *a fortiori* of celebrating festivals, to Indra does not obtain at the present day.

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The Vēdic deity Indra plays also an important part in the Buddhist and Jaina religious lore. The description of Śakra, as given on p. 78 of Beal's *Catena of Buddhist Scriptures* is almost exactly the same as that given in Hindu works.

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As has been already stated, Indra is the lord of the eastern direction and therefore the image of the deity is to be placed on the eastern side, when a group of the Dikpālakas is set up. The places where such a group is generally placed in a Hindu temple are the ceiling of the front *maṇḍapa*, the eight corners of one of the upper-storeys of the

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vimāna if it has more storeys than one, and, if the temple has more than one prākāra, in one of them.

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The description of the image of Indra, as also of the other Dikpālakas is contained in almost all the āgamas and in the Bṛhat-saṃhitā and Viṣṇu-dharmōttara. It is stated in the Aṃśumadbhēdā-gama that the colour of the image of Indra should be dark and that it should have two eyes and two arms; the image should possess very handsome features and be adorned with the kirīṭa, kuṇḍalas, hāra, kēyūra and other ornaments and be draped in red garments (delicate textured Chinese cloths ?). Indra should carry in his right hand the śakti and in the left the aṅkuśa. The neck of the figure of Indra should be thick and the belly rather big; the image might be sitting or standing upon a siṃhā-sana or be seated upon his elephant, the Airāvata.

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To the left of the figure of Indra should be seated that of his consort Indrāṇī, decorated with all ornaments and carrying an utpala flower in the hand, and the features should be those of a gay and joyful young woman. On either side of this celestial pair should be represented two Gandharva women waving multicoloured chāmaras.

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Some of the other authorities have practically the same description but differ in stating that the articles held in the hand by Indra are the vajra and *aṅkuśa* or a *nīlotpala* flower; while the others state that the colour of Indra should be white and that he should have a third eye lying horizontally in the middle of the forehead and four arms,—one of the right hands of which is to carry the *vajra*, the other right hand a *padma*, while one of the left arms should be passed round the figure of Indrāṇī as in embracing and the remaining left hand should carry the *aṅkuśa*.

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Indrāṇī should be of the colour of gold and be clad in blue garments. She should have two arms of which one should be embracing Indra and the other hand should carry a *santāna-mañjari*. The *Viṣṇudharmottara* adds that she should be seated upon the left lap of herlord.

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The elephant Airāvata should have four tusks, two on either side.

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Two photographs are reproduced in illustration of the description of the figure of Indra. The first figure Pl. CL, is to be found in Chidambaram. Indra is seated upon his Airāvata and has four arms, the front two hands are in the *abhaya* and *varada* poses and the back hands carry the *aṅkuśa* and the *vajra*. The second one, fig. 1, Pl. CLI, is seated on a *bhadrapīṭha* and has four arms. The front right hand is kept in the *varada* pose and holds in it an *akṣamālā*; the front left hand

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Indra : Stone : Chidambaram.

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Fig. 1. Indra : Stone :

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Fig. 2. Vāyu : Stone : Chidambaram.

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carries a *kamaṇḍalu* and the back right and left hands hold the *aṅkuśa* and the *vajra* respectively. The head is adorned with a *jaṭāmakuṭa* and a number of necklaces and an *yajñōpavīta* adorns the chest.

Agni

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Agni was also a very important deity in the Vēdic age and with Indra and Sūrya formed the Triad of that period. As with Indra this principal deity came, in course of time, to occupy a very minor place in the Hindu Pantheon. He was the most adorable to all *hōtris*, he it was who knew the proper seasons to worship the gods with oblations, he was the medium through whom the gods received their share of offerings and he was believed to be concealing himself in waters or plants. He was the lord of the house, the resplendent guest of the house and is friendly to man. He was also a terror to the *rākshasas* and *yātudhānas*, whom he crushed between his iron teeth. His birth is accounted for in various ways. He is said to have been brought down from the sky, generated by Indra between two clouds, by Dyaus and in the waters. He has a triple existence, namely, as fire on earth, as lightning in the atmosphere and as the sun in the sky and that the sun entered into him at night and emerged out of him at dawn. Agni was actually generated in the Vēdic age by the rubbing of one piece of wood with another vigorously: the lower piece was called the araṇi and the child thus born, that is, the fire, was found to consume its own mother, the wood. The description of Agni as he was conceived by the Vēdic bards is that he had two heads, four horns, three feet and seven arms.

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Later on Agni is identified definitely with Rudra and Śiva and is therefore considered to be the father of Kārttikēya. He becomes the destroyer among the later trinity and he is also considered to be capable of conferring blessings upon humanity; truly does Agni (fire) destroy everything if not handled properly and is therefore a source of damage to man; also he is an excellent friend of man conferring the boon of removing all obnoxious matter, perishing or decaying matter by burning them down and rendering the surroundings of human dwellings clean and healthy. At present Agni occupies a minor position as the medium or agency for conveying the offerings, made through him, to gods. His wife is Svāhā.

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We have a fine description of Agni of the later period given in the Harivaṃśa. There he is represented as draped in black clothes, has the smoke for his standard and head-gear and carries a flaming

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spear. His chariot is drawn by horses of red colour and the winds are the wheels of his chariot. He has a ram as his pet animal and he is more often shown as riding this animal instead of in a chariot as described above. The following is the *Āgamic* description of Agni:

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Agni should be of red colour, with four arms and three eyes and the hair or *jaṭā* of the head which should also be of red colour, standing on end and forming a sort of *prabhāmaṇḍala*. He should be seated upon a ram. The front two hands should be held in the *varada* and *abhaya* poses, while in the back right hand there should be the *sruk* and in the back left hand the *śakti*. If he is represented as having only two arms, they should carry the *sruk* and *śakti* respectively. According to another authority, Agni should be of the colour of molten gold or the red colour of the rising sun and be clad in red garments; he should have also moustaches and a *yajñopavīta*. In his hands he should keep the *akṣamālā* and the *kamaṇḍalu*. Where he is represented as possessing four arms, the *Viṣṇudharmōttara* states, he should carry in his right hands the flames of fire (*jvālās*) and the *triśūla* and in one of the left hands the *akṣamālā*, while the remaining left hand should be embracing his wife Svāhā. It also adds that Agni should have four sharp tusks and that his chariot should be drawn by four parrots and that the banner on it should be the smoke (*dhūmaketu*). The driver of the chariot of Agni is Vāyu. His consort Svāhā should be clothed in red garments, be smeared with *kuṅkuma* (saffron paste) and be adorned with *mātra* (?) and be carrying a *ratna-pātra* in her hand (that is, a vessel containing gems or one set with gems).

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According to a third authority the colour of Agni should be yellow like that of Brahmā and he should also be represented like Brahmā with golden coloured *jaṭās* and eyes of yellow colour: he is to be carrying in his hands the *akṣamālā* and the *śaktiyāyudha* and be seated upon a seat known as the *arddha-candrāsana*.

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Two illustrations of the figure of Agni are given on Pls. CLII and figure 2, CLIII. The first figure is found in the Śiva temple at Kaṇḍiyūr in Travancore. It has two heads which are of the goat, seven arms and three legs. Of the seven arms four are on the right side and three on the left. The second figure belongs to the Śiva temple at Chidambaram and is almost similar to the first figure. Instead of the faces being those of goats, as in the first figure, they are human in this case and a bull (not a ram as required by the *āgamas*) is sculptured behind Agni as his vehicle.

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Agni : Stone : Kaṇḍiyūr (Travancore).

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Fig. 1. Yama: Stone: Chidambaram.

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Fig. 2. Agni: Stone: Chidambaram.

Yama or Vaivasvata

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Yama is also a deity of some celebrity of the Vēdic period. In the *Ṛigvēda* he is mentioned as the son of Vivasvat and of Saraṇyū, the daughter of Tvaṣṭṛi, with a twin sister named Yami. This sister of his importuned him to become her husband, but he successfully resisted the incestuous offer. He was the first man who died, reached the other world and showed others the path to that world. He guides other men thither, and assembles them in a house which is secured to them for ever. He is, however, nowhere in the Vēdic period, represented as a punisher of sins; nevertheless he is still an object of terror. He has two dogs each with four eyes and wide nostrils which guard the road to this last abode of the mortals. In one place he is actually identified with death.

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In the later day mythology he is reduced to the situation of the guardian of the region of the deceased, and, as the presiding deity of the place, he is invested with the powers of appraising the quality and quantity of the sin committed by each soul and meting out proportioned punishments: as the dispenser of justice he is also known as Dharmarāja. He is said to be the father of Dharma, the eldest of the five Pāṇḍavas. The following description of the image of Yama occurs in the Sanskrit authorities:

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Yama should be of dark colour, resembling the rain-cloud, with two arms, fire-coloured eyes and sharp side-tusks. He should be adorned with a *kirīṭa-makuṭa* and other ornaments, a red flower garland and be covered over with red sandal-paste and draped in red garments. He may be seated either on a *siṃhāsana* or on a he-buffalo. His hands should bear a *khaḍga* and a *khēṭaka* or a fruit and tender leaves or *daṇḍa* and *pāśa*.

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On either side of Yama should be standing Mṛtyu and Saṃhitā, with terrific faces and of dazzling blue and red colours respectively. Besides these there should be also two women waving *chāmaras* on either side of Yama. In front of Yama should be standing two Brāhmaṇas called Dharma and Adharma, as also at the door, Chitragupta and Kālī, all clothed in red garments. Yama should be surrounded by the *dēvas*, *asuras*, *dharmis* (those who have done good acts) and *pāpis* (sinners) ever worshipping him.

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The *Viṣṇudharmōttara* states that the colour of Yama’s garments is golden yellow and that, seated on his left lap, there should be his consort *Dhūmōrṇā* whose complexion is that of the *nīlōtpala* flower. Yama has four arms, while his consort

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has only two. In his right hand Yama keeps the daṇḍa and the khaḍga and in the left hand a flaming triśūla and the akshamālā. The right arm of Dhūmōrṇā is to be passed behind Yama in embrace with the left hand bearing a pomegranate fruit. On the right side stands Chitragupta dressed like the Westerners (āpichyavēsha); he is to be of fine looks and to carry in his right hand a stile and in the left a palm leaf for recording the acts of the mortals. To the left of Yama stands Kāla of terrific appearance and armed with the pāśa.

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The figure of Yama whose photograph is given on Pl. CLIII is found in the Śiva temple at Chidambaram. It has two arms; the right hand carries a pāśa and the left a gada. There is a small karaṇḍa-makuṭa on the head and a number of ornaments on the person. His vehicle, a bull, is standing behind him.

Nirruti

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Nirruti is also a deity of the Vedic period; though mention is made of this deity in the Ṛigvēda, neither the Vedic nor later literatnre throws much light on it. In the dictionaries Nirruti is said to be Alakshmi, (Jyēshṭhādēvi), a rākshasa, etc. In later mythology Nirruti is made the guardian of the south-western region of the universe and an elaborate description of this divinity is given in the āgamas and other authoritative works.

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Nirṛuti is said to be of blue colour, with a large body draped in yellow garments and seated either on a bhadrapīṭha, a lion or riding on the shoulders of a man.¹ The Viṣṇudharmōttara states that he must be seated on an ass, bearing a daṇḍa in his hand. He should have a terrific appearance with ill-looking eyes, gaping mouth, exposing teeth and side tusks, and the hair on the head standing on end. However, he should be adorned with all ornaments and with garlands composed of all flowers and be surrounded by Rākṣasas and seven Apsaras women. He should have two arms; in the right hand there should be a sword and in the left one a shield. According to the Viṣṇudharmōttara Nirṛuti has four consorts named Dēvī, Kṛiṣṇāngī, Kṛiṣṇāvadanā and Kṛiṣṇapāśa and these should also be with him. The Apsaras ladies surrounding Nirṛuti should be clothed with silk garments, and should be of handsome looks, with smiling countenances, large breasts and glutials, thick thighs and slender waists; they should smear different kinds of sweet smelling scents on their bodies.

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¹ Nara-vāhana is the characteristic vehicle of Kubēra.

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Fig. 1. Kubēra : Stone : Dohad Panch Mahals.

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Fig. 2. Nirṛuti : Ahōbilam.

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[Figure: PLATE I. FACSIMILE OF THE FIRST PAGE OF THE MANUSCRIPT OF THE "CANTERBURY TALES" IN THE HENGWRT COLLECTION.]

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[Figure: PLATE II. FACSIMILE OF THE FIRST PAGE OF THE MANUSCRIPT OF THE "CANTERBURY TALES" IN THE ELLESMERE COLLECTION.]

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One illustration of Nirṛuti is given in fig. 2, on Pl. CLIV. Herein Nirṛuti is seen riding upon the shoulders of a man and carrying a daṇḍa in his right hand.

Varuṇa

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Varuṇa was no doubt an important deity of the Vēdic period; he belonged to the triad, Indra, Varuṇa and Agni. He is praised often in company with Indra or Mitra as the possessor of illimitable resources and as upholding the heaven and the earth. He is the lord of the rain, the water and the sea. Except for the fact that he is the guardian of the west, he is practically overlooked in modern mythology. At the present when the rain fails he is invoked by mantras and pūjā and prayed to send down showers.

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Varuṇa is of white colour, is draped in yellow garments and possesses a pacific look. His head should be adorned with a karaṇḍa-makuṭa and all other ornaments and should be wearing on his person an yajñōpavīta. He should be represented as of strong constitution and as seated or standing upon a fish or makara (a kind of aquatic animal, more mythical than real) or a crocodile. He may be represented as possessing two or four arms; if shown with two arms only, one hand should be in the varada pose and the other should be carrying a pāśa; if with four, one of the hands should be in the varada pose, while the remaining ones should carry the pāśa, a snake and a kamaṇḍalu.

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As usual, the Viṣṇudharmōttara has a different description from those found in the āgamas. It states that Varuṇa should be seated in a chariot drawn by seven haṃsas; his colour is like the vaiḍūrya (a precious gem) and he must be draped in white garments and adorned with ornaments set with pearls and necklaces composed of the same material. He should have a slightly hanging belly and four arms. Over his head there should be a white umbrella and on his left the fish banner. In the right hands of Varuṇa there should be the padma and the pāśa and in the left hands the śaṅkha and the ratna-pātra. A very good looking consort of his should be seated on his left lap with a nīlōtpala in her left hand and her right arm embracing Varuṇa, her lord.

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To the right and left respectively of Varuṇa should be standing the river goddesses Gaṅgā and Yamunā. Gaṅgā of moon-like white colour and possessing a pretty face should be standing on a matsya or makara, with a cāmara in one hand and a padma in the other, and Yamunā, also possessing good looks and having the colour of the Tigova : Jabulpur District, Central Provinces.

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Fig. 1. Gaṅgā : Stone :

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Fig. 2. Yamunā : Stone :

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Gate of a Temple with Gaṅgā and Yamunā on the jambs: Stone: Kharod, Bilāspūr District, Central Provinces.

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*nīlotpala* flower, should be standing on a tortoise with a *chāmara* in one hand and a *nīlotpala* in the other.

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Varuṇa being the lord of the ocean he is represented in the descriptions as keeping with him the *padma*, the *śaṅkha* and a vessel containing *ratnas* (or gems)—the sea being believed by the Hindus to be the repository of gems—and as being attended upon by the river goddesses.

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Illustrations of the river goddesses, Gaṅgā and Yamunā are given on Pls. CLV and CLVI. Fig. 1, Pl. CLV represents Gaṅgā; she is standing upon a *makara* under the shade of a tree. Her right elbow rests upon the shoulder of a female attendant, while the left hand carries some object which is not quite clear in the photograph. Two more dwarfish attendants are on her left side. Yamunā is represented in fig. 2 on the same plate. She also stands under a tree one of whose branches she holds by her left hand. The right hand is held in the *sūchi* pose. She is standing upon a *kūrma* (tortoise). On either side of her is an attendant. Pl. CLVI is a very finely carved gate-way of a ruined temple of Śiva at Kharod, in the Bilāspūr district of the Central Province. On the jambs of this gate are sculptured Gaṅgā and Yamunā; Gaṅgā stands on the proper right and Yamunā on the proper left. They both carry pūrna-kumbha or pots full of water.

Vāyu

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Vāyu is also a Vēdic, elemental deity. His place is in the air. He is said to have Indra as his charioteer or his companion in his chariot; however, he does not occupy any very prominent place in the Vēdas. He is called the son-in-law of Tvaṣṭṛi and is reputed to be handsome looking in appearance. Maruts or winds are not associated somehow with Vāyu, though in one instance he is said to have given birth to them by the rivers of heaven.

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In the later mythology he is assigned the guardianship of the north-west region of the universe. He is said, in the Mahābhārata, to be the father of Bhīma; as also of Hanumān. The Mādhvas believe that their Āchārya, Ānandatīrtha, is an incarnation of Vāyu.

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Vāyu should be a youthful person of powerful constitution, of black colour and possessing two or four arms. His eyes must be of red colour and his garments, white. He should have a wavy-curved brow and be adorned with all ornaments. In his right hand it is stated, there should be a dhvaja (banner) and in the left a daṇḍa. It might also mean that the right hand should be held in the

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*patāka-hasta* pose. Some authorities prescribe the *aṅkuśa* in the right hand of this deity. His hair should be dishevelled and he may be seated either on a *siṃhāsana* or on a deer; the latter is more often me with in sculptures as the vehicle of Vāyu. He should also appear to be in a haste to move very quickly. The *Viṣṇudharmōttara* states that the colour both of the body and of the garment of Vāyu should be sky-blue and that he should carry in his hands the *chakra* and a *dhvaja*. Vāyu should have his mouth open. To his left should be seated his consort.

Dhanada or Kubēra

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The words Dhanada or Kubēra literally mean the giver of wealth or a person with a deformed body. The story of Kubēra who is also known by the name of Vaiśrāvaṇa is given in the *Uttara-kāṇḍa* of the *Rāmāyaṇa* thus:—Brahmā begot a mind-born son named Pulastya; the latter had a son named Gaviputra-Vaiśrāvaṇa. This Vaiśrāvaṇa left his father and joined Brahmā, who granted him, in return for his devotion to himself, immortality and lordship over riches and installed him in Laṅkā as his capital. Pulastya, incensed at the faithlessness of his first son, made one portion of his self be born as Viśravas, who looked with disdain upon his ungrateful brother Vaiśrāvaṇa. Vaiśrāvaṇa wishing to pacify his father presented him with three good looking Rākshasis named Pushpōtkaṭa, Mālinī and Rākā. By Pushpōtkaṭa Pulastya had two sons Rāvaṇa and Kumbhakarṇa; by Mālinī, Vibhīshaṇa; by Rākā, Khara and Sūrpanakhā. These later born sons of Pulastya being envious of Vaiśrāvaṇa’s prosperity practised austerities; pleased with them Brahmā conferred upon Rāvaṇa the boon of possessing at will any number of heads and shapes, and of being invincible except by men. Having obtained these powers Rāvaṇa came to Laṅkā, expelled Vaiśrāvaṇa and made himself the master of the place. Kubēra retired to the hill Gandhamādana. Elsewhere Vaiśrāvaṇa, Rāvaṇa and others are said to be the sons of Viśravas and also that Kailāsa became the abode of Kubēra and that his wife was Riddhi. It is somewhat strange to hear in the Rāmāyaṇa that Mahādēva went to the Kailāsa to pay a visit to Kubēra, when it is remembered that the Kailāsa is believed to be the abode especially of Mahādēva.

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Another account of the origin of Dhanada is to be found in the Varāhapurāṇa. When Brahmā entertained the desire to create the universe, a shower of lime-stones began to pour forth from his face attended with a hurricane. After sometime the fury of the storm broke down and everything

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became calm by the wish of Brahmā. He asked the mass of stones which thus fell from him to assume the form of a divine person of peaceful countenance and appointed him as the Lord of Wealth and commanded him to be also the guardian of the riches of the gods.

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In the Buddhist literature and mythology also Kubēra is the god of riches and the guardian deity of the northern region of the universe. He is also the lord over the *Yakshas* and is the husband of Hāritī. He has also the name Vaiśrāvaṇa (whose Prākṛit form Vassāvaṇa, is current in Ceylon) and Jambhala.

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The *āgamas* also recognise him as the master of the *Yakshas* and describe his figure as follows :— The colour of Kubēra according to one authority should be golden yellow and according to another crimson ; the colour of his underwear is to be red, and the upper garment, white. His person should be adorned with all ornaments, including a *kirīṭa*, or a *karaṇḍa-makuṭa*, *kuṇḍalas* and necklaces composed of a series of golden coins. He should be good looking, or even terrific looking and possessing either two or four arms : if the arms are only two, the hands may be kept in the *varada* and *abhaya* poses or the left hand may keep in it a gadā: if, on the contrary, he has four arms one of them should be embracing his consort Vibhavā and another one embracing Vr̥ddhi, seated on the left and right laps respectively of Kubēra; the remaining hands should carry the gadā and the śakti. The Viṣṇudharmōttara states that his left eye should be of yellowish brown colour (piṅgala), that he should be dressed in the fashion of the westerners (āpīcyavēsha), that his body should be protected with an armour, that he should have a pair of moustaches and that there should also be side-tusks in his mouth. All the authorities are uniform in asserting that Kubēra should have a rather big and slightly pendant belly. He may be seated on a padmapīṭha or be driving in a chariot drawn by men or even directly seated on the shoulders of a man. The Aṁśumadbhēdāgama states that the vehicle of Kubēra is a ram. To the right and left of Kubēra there should be respectively the Śaṅkhanidhi and the Padmanidhi whose descriptions are as follows: these two personifications should resemble in shape the bhūtas, that is, with short limbs attached to a large trunk and surmounted by a large face, carrying in their hands lotus flowers. They should be draped in white clothes, adorned with karaṇḍa-makuṭas and placed upon padmapīṭhas. In another place it is stated that he should

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be surrounded by the eight kinds of wealth and by a number of *Yakshas*.

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The two goddesses Vibhavā and Vriddhi should in their turn be embracing Dhanada each by one arm and carrying in the other hand a *ratna-pātra*.

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The *Rūpamaṇḍana* prescribes the elephant as the *vāhana* of Kubēra and states that his four hands should carry the *gadā*, a purse containing money, a pomegranate fruit and a *kamaṇḍalu*.

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In the Buddhist mythology, Kubēra is sculptured exactly as in the Hindu representation; but he is immediately recognised as Kubēra by a mongoose which is generally also shown either as sitting upon his left lap or placed on his left side. (See Figs. 196 and 199* in V. A. Smith's *History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon*).

Īśāna

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The lord of the north-east region of the universe is Īśāna. From the description given of him, we know he is the same as Mahādēva or Śiva. Īśāna should have three eyes, a pacific appearance, white complexion and should be draped in white garments and in tiger's skin. His head should be adorned with a *jaṭā-makuṭa*, his chest should bear an ordinary white *yajñōpavīta* or a *nāga-yajñōpavīta* and otherwise also adorned with all ornaments. There should be the crescent moon on the *jaṭā-makuṭa*. He may be seated either on a *padmāsana* or better upon a white bull. If he is represented with only two arms, his hands must carry a *triśūla* and a *kapāla* or one of the hands (the left one generally) might be in the *varada* pose; if, however, he has four hands, the two front ones should be sculptured as playing upon a *vīṇā* and the others are to be held in the *varada* and *abhaya* poses. This description seems to be incorrect; for the *vīṇā* must be held only by the hands of the front pair of arms, which are also the very hands that are necessarily to be in the *varada* and *abhaya* poses.

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∗ Mr. V.A. Smith calls this male figure 'Sarasvati enthroned' evidently through oversight. The mongoose in the left hand of the figure, and the three ornamented pots of treasure placed under its feet clearly show that the sculpture represents Kubēra.

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