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Elements of Hindu Iconography v4.c35: Demi-Gods

Elements of Hindu Iconography v4.c35

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Demi-Gods

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HINDU mythology includes in its fold a number of minor gods such as the *rishis*, *pitris* and *nāgas*. A brief account and the description of the images of these will be given in the following paragraphs. The figures of *rishis*, *apsarasas* and others are, according to the *āgamas*, required to be placed in Hindu temples, and as such are not mere mythological curiosities having theoretical existences and possessing imaginary descriptions. We meet with their representations here and there in temples and the description of these is not to be considered out of place in a work of this kind. Besides, the present compilation being a close following of the *āgamas* both in arrangement and description, the existence of the descriptions of these demi-gods in the *āgamas* necessitates the incorporation of such descriptions in the present publication also. Among the heading the demi-gods are included in this chapter the following:—

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1. Vasus,
2. Nāgadēva and the Nāgas,
3. Sādhyas,
4. Asuras,
5. Apsarasas, 6. Piśāchas,
7. Vētālas,
8. Pitṛis,
9. Ṛishis,
10. Gandharvas and
11. Marutgaṇas.

(i) Vasus

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In the *Ṛigvēda*, the number of gods is said to be thirty-three which is composed of the eight Vasus, eleven Rudras, twelve Ādityas and the heaven and the earth. According to the *Rāmāyaṇa* all the thirty-three gods were the sons of Aditi, while according to the *Mahābhārata* they were the attendants upon the sun and were worshipping him.

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We learn from the *Śrī Bhāgavata* that in the sixth Manvantara, Daksha had by his wife Asikni sixty daughters. He married them to the Prajāpatis. Dharma obtained thus ten daughters of Daksha, of whom one, Vasu, begot the eight Vasus. Once upon a time, says the *Dēvībhāgavata* the Vasus with their respective wives went out enjoying pleasure and reached the *āśrama* (hermitage) of Vasisṭhtha. The wife of Dyau one of the Vasus seeing the celestial cow named Nandini in the abode of Vasisṭhtha, asked her husband about the nature of the cow and who her owner was. He informed her that it belonged to Vasisṭhtha and had the rare quality of giving milk

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which was able to make those that drank it live eternally young and of sound health. The wife of Dyau requested her husband to carry away the cow to their residence, for she wanted her human friend, the daughter of the king Uśinara, to drink the milk of Nandini and to live long in unfading youth and sound health. The Vasu robbed Vasisṭha of his cow and was conducting her to his home; the *rishi* perceiving through his mental eye the mischief perpetrated by the Vasu, cursed all the Vasus to become human beings. Thereupon the Vasus hurried to the *āśrama* of Vasisṭha to beg for his pardon and to request him to restore them once again to the state of gods. He promised that the other Vasus except Dyau would regain their celestial condition after the lapse of a year; Dyau alone should continue to be a human being for a long time. Disgusted with the human existence that was soon to come upon them and to divest themselves of it in an honourable way, they requested the river goddess Gaṅgā to be temporarily born on the earth as a woman, to become the wife of the king Śantanu and beget them as her children, whom, they requested, she should throw away into the river one after another as they were born. To this Gaṅgā agreed and the Vasus were born to her and being disposed of as requested by them, they then reached their former position in heaven.

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The names of the eight Vasus are given in a majority of the authorities as follows:—Dhara, Dhruva, Sōma, Āpa, Anala, Anila, Pratyusha and Prabhāsa. In one work the name of Savitṛi is substituted for Āpa in the above list. The general features of the images of the Vasus are that they should have each two arms, two eyes, and be of red colour; they should be clothed in yellow garments and be adorned with karaṇḍa-makuṭas. They should have side tusks, terrific look, sinuous brows and fine hair. As in the case of all other images these should also be adorned with all ornaments. They may either be seated or standing and should be carrying in their hands the khaḍga and the khēṭaka respectively. The Suprabhēdāgama, among the Śaivāgamas, and the Viśvakarma-śāstra agree in stating that the colour of the Vasus is golden yellow and the latter prescribes beautifully embroidered red garments for the images of their demi-gods. The Viśvakarma-śāstra gives detailed descriptions of each one of the Vasus. According to this authority the images of the Vasus ought to possess four arms. In the following table are given the various articles carried in their hands by the eight Vasus.

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| No. | Names of the Vasus. | Right hands. | Left hands. | REMARKS. |
| | | Front. | Back. | Front. | Back. | |
| 1 | Dhara | ... | Padma | ... | Akṣamālā | ... | Hala | ... | Śakti | Notice the fact that the back left hand has uniformly the śakti, which is made the inseparable of the Vasus, according to this authority. |
| 2 | Dhruva | ... | Kamalākṣamālā. | ... | Chakra | ... | Kamaṇḍalu. | ... | Śakti | ... |
| 3 | Sōma | ... | Padma | ... | ... | A rosary of pearls. | ... | ... | Śakti | ... |
| 4 | Āpa | ... | Hala | ... | Śakti (?) | ... | Aṅkuśa | ... | Śakti | ... |
| 5 | Anila | ... | Aṅkuśa | ... | Akṣamālā. | ... | Śakti | ... | Upavīta (?) | ... |
| 6 | Anala | ... | Akṣamālā. | ... | Sruva | ... | Kapāla | ... | Śakti | ... |
| 7 | Pratyuṣa | ... | Khaḍga | ... | Aṅkuśa | ... | Khēṭaka | ... | Śakti | ... |
| 8 | Prabhāsa | ... | Daṇḍa | ... | Kapāla | ... | Aṅkuśa | ... | Śakti | ... |

(ii) Nagādeva and the Nagas

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The Nāgas are, according to the purāṇic authorities, a race of serpents who inhabited the Pātāla-lōka or the nether regions. The Mahābhārata and the Varāhapurāṇa give the origin of the Nāgas. By Dākshayaṇī, the daughter of Daksha, Kaśyapa begot the seven serpents beginning with Vāsuki. Their progeny increased and the world was flooded with serpents to the great detriment of man. The latter complained to Brahmā about the hardship caused to them by the serpents. Brahmā summoned the serpents to his presence and cursed them to be ruined by the imprecations of their mother which she uttered in the Svāyambhuva-manvantara and banished them to the Pātāla-lōka with the command that they should not bite any human beings, except those who were predestined to die a premature death and those that were really bad. We learn from the Mahābhārata that the Nāgas were the sons of Kadru and Kaśyapa, that they induced their step-brother Vainatēya (Garuḍa) to fetch for them the amṛita (ambrosia) preserved in the kingdom of Indra, that they were made to grant freedom to Vinata and her sons from the voluntary bondage they had entered into under Kadru, that they were deprived of the amṛita brought down by Garuḍa, that Indra carried it away once again to his abode, that by licking the *kuśa* grass on which the vessel of *amṛita* was placed they had their tongues split in twain and other accounts. In historical times, portions of India were inhabited by a race of men who went by the name of the Nāgas and they are said to have formed the majority of persons who joined the newly started Buddhistic religion. Some scholars of Malabar are inclined to believe that the modern Nāyars (Śudras) of Malabar might be descendants of the early Nāgas, a name which, in modern times might have been corrupted into Nāyars. The hypothesis is more fictitious and fanciful, than real and tenable.

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The Nāgas are believed to have been born on the Pañchamī *tithi* of the bright half of the month Śrāvaṇa and the whole of India offers *pūjās* to the Nāgas on this day, except the Draviḍa brāhmaṇas; in Southern India the Mahrāṭa and the Kannaḍa women observe the previous day, the *chaturthi*, also as sacred to the Nāgas, a custom which is nowhere seen to be observed. It is a common sight all over India to meet with the Nāga images set up under big pipal trees by scores and worshipped occasionally. Childless people take a vow to set up the images of Nāgas in anticipation of being blessed with children and celebrate the Nāgapratishṭhā ceremony with great pomp and at great expenditure.

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A description is found in the *Amśumadbhēdāgama* of Nāgadēva, which appears to be that of the chief of the Nāgas. It states that the image of Nāgadēva should have three eyes, four arms, a beautiful countenance and be of red colour. The image should be adorned with a *karaṇḍa-makuṭa* on its head and all other ornaments on its person and should be standing upon a *padma-pīṭha*. The hands of the front arms should be kept in the *varada* and *abhaya* poses, while the back hands should be keeping each a snake in it. Over the head of Nāgarāja should be a hood of a five headed cobra and he must be draped in white clothes.

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The *Śilparatna* adds that the Nāgas should be half human and half serpentine in shape, the lower part, below the navel being that of a snake. Their heads must be covered with hoods having one, three, five or seven heads and they should have split tongues like those of snakes. In their hands they must carry a sword and a shield respectively. The *Maya-śilpa* gives the detailed descriptions of the seven great Nāgas, Vāsuki, Takshaka, Kārkoṭaka, Padma, Mahāpadma, Śaṅkhapāla and Kuḷika as follows:—

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Fig. 1. Nāga and Nāgiṇī: Stone: Halebīḍu.

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Fig. 2. Nāgiṇī: Stone: Madras Museum.

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The colour of Vāsuki is pearl-white; that of Takshaka glistening red and he must have on his hood the mark of the *svastika*. The colour of Kārkoṭaka is black and on his hood there should be three white stripes; Padma is of the rosy hue of the lotus flower, with a white streak and adorned with coral ornaments. The colour of Mahāpadma is white with the mark of *triśūla* on his hood; whereas that of Śaṅkhapāla, is yellow with a white streak on his hood; the colour of Kuḷika is also red and his hood bears the mark of the crescent moon. All these seven great serpents should have two tongues and two arms and a hood with seven heads held over their human heads bearing on them gems. They must all be clad in one or three coats and carry in their hands an *akshamālā* and a *kamaṇḍalu*.

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Two photographs are reproduced in illustration of the descriptions given above. Fig. 1, Pl. CLVII, is the photograph of the Nāga and Nāgiṇī to be found in the Hoysaḷēśvara temple at Haḷebīḍu. The lower parts of these are in the form of snakes and are entwined with each other. The head of the Nāga has over it a hood of cobra with seven heads, whereas that of the Nāgiṇī one of three heads. The Nāga bears in his right hand a sword and is embracing with his left arm his consort. The Nāgiṇī bears a lotus flower in her left hand and embraces with her right arm her consort. The human head of the Nāga is adorned with a karaṇḍa-makuṭa and that of the Nāgiṇī with a knot of hair.

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Fig. 2 on the same plate is that of a piece of sculpture of a Nāgiṇī preserved in the Madras Museum. As in the previous instance the Nāgiṇī has her lower half that of the snake. She has on her head a karaṇḍa-makuṭa which is covered by a cobra hood with three heads in it. She carries a sword and a shield in her right and left hands respectively.

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(iii) SĀDHYAS.

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According to the Nirukta the word Sādhya means a ray of light. The gods who abide in the sky and absorb water and other liquids are said to be the Sādhyas. They are said to be adorable even by the gods.

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The Sādhyas are twelve in number and are named, according to the Agnipurāṇa, Māna, Manta, Prāṇa, Nara, Apāna, Vīryavān, Vinirbhaya, Naya, Daṃśa, Nārāyaṇa, Vṛisha and Prabhi. These are said to be the sons of Dharma and were great souls (mahātmas). The images of Sādhyas should be represented as seated upon padmāsanas and as carrying in their hands the *akṣamālā* and the *kamaṇḍalu*.

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(iv) ASURAS.

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The Asuras and Rākṣasas are very old demi-gods. They are often mentioned in the Vēdic period. The Nirukta says that the word *asura* implies a cloud that sprinkles water. The dark mass of cloud was evidently personified into a wicked being which required to be chastened by Indra to pour down rain. The *asuras* are included in the Pañchajana which, according to the Nirukta was composed of the Gandharvas, the Pitṛis, the Dēvas, the Asuras and the Rākṣasas ; but Śāyaṇa enumerates them as the gods, men, serpents, Gandharvas including the Apsarasas and the Pitṛis. From the *Taittirīyasaṃhitā* we learn that the earth once belonged to the *asuras* and the gods had only a very small place on it. The gods asked the *asuras* for more, upon which the *asuras* desired to know how much of the land they would require. The Dēvas replied “as much as this she-jackal can go round in three steps.” The *asuras* consented to grant this request of the Dēvas and Indra assumed for the occasion the form of a she-jackal and stepped round the whole of the earth in three strides. Then again we learn from the *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* that the gods became distinguished from the *asuras* under the following circumstances : being the descendants of Prajāpati, they both obtained their father’s inheritance, namely, speech,—true and false; they both spoke truth and falsehood. The gods then abandoned falsehood and took exclusively to truth. As a consequence, the gods became weaker and poorer. The poet admits naively that truth certainly reduces people at first to the conditions mentioned above, but that the gods ultimately became prosperous. The asuras, on the other hand, took to falsehood and indulged solely in it. Truth became in after-times the triple science (trayīvidyā). In other ways also the asuras sank lower in status than their brothers the devas. In striving to attain higher positions, the asuras did not know to whom they should offer their oblations and through presumption went on taking them into their own mouths, whereas the gods offered the oblations to each other. Because of their presumption, the asuras were overcome by the devas. In the Aitihāsic period the Rākshasas are often described as dark, ugly, impure people, addicted to man-eating.

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The images of asuras are required to be made in a variety of forms with terrific appearances, having fearful side tusks, ugly eyes surmounted with curling awkward brows, and carrying several kinds of weapons. They should be adorned with all ornaments, including the kiriṭa and the kuṇḍalas.

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Fig. 1. Dvārapālaka of the Śiva Temple: Stone: Kāvērīpākkam.

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Fig. 2. Apsaras: Stone: Śrīnivāsanallūr.

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(v) APSARASAS.

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The Apsarasas are so called because they are said to have sprung from the waters when the ocean was churned for obtaining ambrosia (amṛta). They are believed to be celestial nymphs with no one as their particular husbands and that they were courting human heroes as they ascended the heaven. In the Uttara-kāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa we are told that Rāvaṇa considered the apsarasas as mere courtezans, without any husbands and with this conviction he ravished against her protestations Rambhā, the most beautiful of all the apsarasas, even though she pointed to him that she being the wife of Naḷakuvēra, the son of his (Rāvaṇa's) brother Kubēra. The apsarasas are said to be seven in number and the names of the most important of these are given as Rambhā, Vipulā, Urvasī, and Tilōttama.

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In sculpturing the images of the apsarasas they should be represented as having slender waists, large gluteals and well developed busts. They should all look very pretty with a smiling countenance and adorned with all ornaments and draped in silk garments. They must be standing erect (sama-bhaṅga) on bhadra-pīṭhas.

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(vi) PIŚĀCHAS.

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Who this class of beings are is not clearly known; but that they are known to have been referred to from very early times is evident from literature. Their images are required to be represented as of extremely emaciated appearance, with the knobs of the bones jutting out and the veins visible under the surface of the skins; they must be composed of the bones, tendons and skin only. The hair on their head should be stiff and spread out.

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(vii) VĒTĀḶAS.

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Another obscure class of beings are the Vētāḷas, whose descriptions in the āgamas are not very different from those of the Piśāchas. The only difference between them is that the latter should be tall in stature, with parched up belly and projecting cheek-bones.

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(viii) PITṚIS.

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Hiraṇyagarbha Manu had Marīchi and other sons; the sons of these latter are known as the Pitṛis or Pitṛigaṇas. Mention is made of seven such gaṇas and they are as follows:—

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(a) Virāṭ's sons were the Pitṛis of the Sādhyas and were called the Sōmasad.

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(b) Marīchi's sons, those of the Dēvatas and were called the Agnishvātta.
(c) Atri's sons, those of the Daityas, Dānavas, Yakshas, Gandharvas, Uragas and the Rākshasas and were called the Barhishad.
(d) Kavi's (Śukrāchārya's) sons, those of the Brāhmaṇas and were called the Sōmapa.
(e) Aṅgiras' sons, those of Kshatriyas and were called the Havirbhuja.
(f) Pulastya's sons, those of the Vaiśyas and were called the Ājyapa, and
(g) Vasisṭha's sons, those of the Śūdras and were called the Sukalins.

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In giving the description of the Pitṛis, the āgamas state that they are three in number and that they must be seated either on the same wooden seat or on a bhadra-pīṭha; the three pitṛis are the father, the grandfather and the great grandfather. These must be sculptured as old but good looking and strong people of yellow colour, draped in yellow garments and wearing each an yajñōpavīta. On their head must be the kēśa-bandha and they should be adorned with all ornaments: their body should be smeared with ashes (bhasma). They should have nice teeth and have with them a walking stick and an umbrella. The pitṛis should have only two arms of which the left one should be kept stretched out on the knee of the bent left leg; the right hand should be held in the sūchi-hasta pose. The Viṣṇudharmōttara states that the pitṛis should be seated upon kuśāsana (mat made of kuśa or on spread out kuśa grass) and that they should carry the piṇḍapātra or the vessel to receive the rice-balls offered to them by their living descendants.

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(ix) ṚIṢIṢ.

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The word ṛiṣi, according to the Nirukta, means the rays of the sun and these are said to be seven in number. By an extension of meaning the term came to be applied to the ṛiṣis, the seers; just as the sun's rays spread everywhere and disclose the existence of all things, the seers or the ṛiṣis are able to perceive everything. Again, the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa considers the ṛiṣis as breaths and derives the word ṛiṣi thus: “In as much as before all this Universe, they, desiring this Universe, were worn out (arishan) with toil and austerity therefore they are ṛiṣis.” Later on, the ṛiṣis were regarded as those who had reached the other end (pāragas) of jñāna and saṃsāra. The origin of the ṛiṣis according to the Nirukta is as follows:—Brahmā took some dirt from his

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body and sacrificed it to the fire. From the flames there emanated the *rishi* Bhr̥igu (=fried in the fire). After the fire subsided, another *rishi* arose from the live charcoal (*angāra*) and was therefore called Āṅgiras. A third *rishi* was predicted to be born after the two former from the same fire and was called Atri; the name Atri is also capable of meaning not-three and hence that the number of *rishis* was not going to stop with three and that some more were to be born from the *kuṇḍa* (fire-pit). When the *agni* was removed and the *kuṇḍa* dug out a *rishi* came into existence from the place where the *kuṇḍa* stood. He was known as Vaikhānasa. The *Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa* gives a slightly different account of the birth of the *rishis*. Marīchi was born first; at the time of the *yāga* was born Kratu. A third came into existence saying *aham tritiya*, I am the third, and was hence known as Atri. Then again a fourth with thick hair was born and was called Pulastya; a fifth with flowing hair and called Pulaha was next born. From the heap of coins and other *dakshiṇas* (presents) placed in the *yāga-śālā* (sacrificial ground) was born another *rishi* and he was called Vasisṭhtha. All these were the mind-begotten sons of Brahmā and it is from these all other beings including the Pitr̥is were generated.

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The *rishis* are grouped into seven classes. Vyāsa and others are called the Mahārishis; Bhēla and others, the Paramarishis; Kaṇva and others, the Dēvarishis; Vasisṭhtha and others, the Brahmarishis; Śuśruta and others, the Śrutarishis; Ṛituparṇa and others, the Rājarishis and Jaimini and others, the Kāṇḍarishis.

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The names of the seven *rishis* differ from *manvantara* to *manvantara*.

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Jñāna or opinion is of two kinds, *vidyā* (true) and *avidyā* (false); the former of these arises from perception, inference and recollection and the infallible intuition peculiar to the *rishis*. The *rishis* possessed an intuition which was peculiarly their own and was shared slightly by the ordinary mortals. We learn that the *rishis* who lived of old and who conversed about sacred truths with the gods directly, led a conjugal life; whenever they wanted anything they approached straight the gods with metrical composition in praise of these gods; thus supernatural powers came to be attributed to these sages. The *rishis* seem also to be divided into the ancient and the modern, the former being Bhṛigu, Āṅgiras and others. It is worth noting that the *rishis* were called also *kavis* (poets) *mēdhāvins* (wise men), *vipra* (learned men) *vipaśchit*, *vēdhas*, (words meaning also the learned men), *muni* (the thoughtful), etc.

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The *āgamas* give the names of the seven *rishis* differently; thus, the *Amśumadbhēdāgama* has Manu, Agastya, Vasisṭha, Gautama, Āṅgiras, Viśvāmitra and Bhāradvāja; whereas the *Supra-bhēdāgama* enumerates them as Bhṛigu, Vasisṭha, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Kaśyapa, Kauśika and Āṅgiras; and the *Pūrvakāraṇāgama*, Agastya, Pulastya, Viśvāmitra, Parāśara, Jamadagni, Vālmīki and Sanatkumāra. We have perhaps to understand that each of these authorities gives the names as they obtained in different *Manvantaras*.

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The images of the *rishis* should be sculptured as either seated or standing on a *padma-pīṭha*; they must be shown as peaceful old people with flowing beards reaching up to the chest, with *jaṭāmakuṭas* on their heads, *yajñōpavītas*, and with their foreheads marked with three streaks of *vibhūti* (*bhasma* or ashes). They may have in their hands a walking stick and an umbrella or they may keep the right hands in the *jñāna-mudrā* pose and rest the left arms on the knee of the left leg which must be bent and resting upon the seat. They should be clothed in garments made of barks of trees, which should be held in position by *kaṭi-sūtrās*; their upper wear should be white clothes.

(x) Gandharvas

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Another class of semi-divine beings are the Gandharvas. In the *Atharvaṇa Vēda* they are said to be a class of gods, hairy, like monkeys or dogs; they assume at will handsome appearances to seduce the females of this earth. Therefore they are invoked so that they may not indulge in this sort of wrong act but live with their own wives. The Gandharvas are believed to be deities who know the secrets of the divine truths and reveal them to the world. As we have already seen they are included in the class of Pañchajanas and Śāyaṇa links them with Apsarasas: according to him they are the males of a class of divine beings whose females were the Apsarasas. In the *Atharvaṇa Vēda* the Gandharvas are said to be 6333 in number. Of the eight different systems of marriage, according to the classification of the Āryas, one is the Gandharva system. This corresponds practically to the European and other similar systems, namely, a man and a woman falling in love with each other and entering into the life of man and wife until by mutual consent they separate or till the lifetime of one of the contracting parties, in other words the alliance is not a religious sacrament but a sort of contract. Hence the repudiation by Rāvaṇa of the protests of Rambhā whom he seduced and who was not willing to consort with him. The description of the images of Gandharvas is not met with in the āgamas and is, therefore, not possible to be given authoritatively.

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(xi) THE MARUT-GANAS.

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In the Vēdic period the Maruts are said variously to be the children of the earth under the name of Priśni and Rudra and as children of the ocean : they are said to behave like sons to Indra. Rudra and Priśni are said to have begotten these in their assumed forms of a bull and a cow. Generally they were very friendly to Indra and with their help strengthened him against Vṛitrāsura. Only in a very few instances they are described as having abandoned Indra and left him to kill Vṛitrā single-handed. The Maruts are the gods of the tempest and as such are sometimes included in the thirty-three gods and sometimes counted as outside this number ; in some places they are said to be thrice sixty and in others as only twenty-seven in number. They were the favourite deities of some ṛishis who have sung high praises about them. In these they are extolled as having spears resting upon their shoulders wearing anklets, golden ornaments and helmets, seated upon resplendent cars drawn by spotted deer and carrying light in their hands; they are ever engaged in gathering rain-clouds and compelling them to discharge their contents. Divested of the poetic element and viewed in the ordinary sense, the Maruts are gusts of wind personified; they are as fleet as deer and are really ever busy in gathering rain-clouds and helping Indra the god of the atmosphere.

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The *Aṃśumadbhēdāgama* contains a description of the images of these Maruts. They should all be of handsome looks, dark in complexion and possessing two arms and standing upon *padmapīṭhas*. They should be draped in white silk garments, adorned with all ornaments and flowers and should have luxuriantly growing hair on their heads.

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The Figure of Naṭarāja showing the relative positions of the limbs.

v4.c35.s3.6

The detailed measurements of the distances of the various limbs from the *madhyasūtra*, of the dancing Śiva-Naṭarāja are given in the *Kāmikāgama* and the *Kāraṇāgama*. The texts pertaining to this portion are not free from errors; therefore it is apprehended that some of the measurements may perhaps be incorrect. However, they are given below in the accompanying table.

v4.c35.s3.7

| Distances measured. | According to the | |
| | Kāraṇāgama | Kāmikāgama |

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The *madhya-sūtra* should pass from a distance 8½ *yavas* removed from the centre of the forehead, through a position tangential to the right wing of the nose and the centre of the projecting ankle bone of the right leg which is planted upon the figure of the *Apas-māra-pūrusha*. This rule is according to the *Kāraṇāgama*. The *Kāmikāgama* says: The

v4.c35.s3.9

| Distances measured. | According to the |
| | Kāraṇāgama | Kāmikāgama. |
| *madhya-sūtra* shall pass through the head, the forehead, the side of the right wing of the nose, the right side of the navel and the centre of the projecting bone of the ankle. | |
| The horizontal distance of the centre of the forehead from this *sūtra*. | | 2 *aṅgulas*. |
| The distance between this *sūtra* and the *hikkā-sūtra* (measured along the line of sight of the observer, *i.e.*, vertically to the plane of the paper). | | 3 ,, |
| The distance of the right arm-pit from this *sūtra*. | 18 *aṅgulas*.(?) | |
| The distance of the left arm-pit. | 8 ,, | |
| The width of the neck on the left of this *sūtra*. | | 5 ,, |
| The width of the neck on the right. | | 4 ,, |
| The beginning (from the shoulder) of the left arm held in the *gajahasta* pose should be situated from this *sūtra* at a distance of | | 3 ,, |
| The left hand bearing *agni* should be lifted as high as the *hikkā-sūtra*. | | |
| The right hand carrying the *ḍamaru* and held in the *sūchi* pose should be at the height of the *karṇa-sūtra*. | | This hand is required to be one *aṅgula* above the *karṇa-sūtra*. |

v4.c35.s3.10

| Distances measured. | According to the | |
| | Kāraṇāgama | Kāmikāgama |
| The distance between the wrists of the hands bearing *agni* and the *ḍamaru* respectively from the shoulder. | 24 aṅgulas. | |
| The distance between the middle of the forearm of the hand held in the *abhaya* pose and the forearm of the *daṇḍa-hasta* (*gaja-hasta*). | | 17 aṅgulas. |
| There should be, according to the Kāraṇāgama, the *sarpavalaya* round the middle of the forearm, the hand of which is held in the *abhaya* pose and there must be an upper-garment of tiger's skin thrown on the shoulder between the two left arms. | | |
| The distance between the tip of the thumb of the *abhaya-hasta* and the nipple of the right breast. | | 2 ,, |
| The shortest distance between the wrist of the *abhaya-hasta* and the *daṇḍa hasta*. | | 6 ,, |
| The width of the portion of the abdomen on the right of the *madhya-sūtra*. | 4 aṅgulas. | 8 ,, |
| Do. on the left. | 13 ,, | 12 ,, |
| The distance (measured on the right side) of the navel from the *madhya-sūtra*. | 1 ,, | |
| The root of the penis is situated on the left of this *sūtra* at a distance of | 14 ,, | |

v4.c35.s3.11

| Distances measured. | According to the | |
| | Kāraṇāgama | Kāmikāgama |
| The back side of the buttocks is situated on the left side of this sūtra at a distance of | 7 aṅgulas | 17 aṅgulas |
| The madhyasūtra should touch the śroṇi and the left thigh and divide its width into two portions : the length of the portion on the right. | | 17 ,, (?) |
| Do. on the left. | | 9 ,, |
| The knee of the raised leg should reach the height of the navel, according to the Kāraṇāgama and śroṇi, according to the Kāmikāgama. | | |
| The sole of the lifted leg should be just above the knee of the standing leg, according to the Kāraṇagama and up to the level of the knee, according to the Kāmikāgama. | | |
| The distance between the sole of the lifted leg and the knee of the standing leg. | 34 ,, (?) | 24 ,, |
| The distance between the wrist of the daṇḍa hasta and the knee of the lifted leg. | 1 yava (?) | 14 ,, |
| The distance between the middle of the thigh of the left leg and the navel. | | 9 ,, |
| The distance from the madhya-sūtra of the knee of the bent, standing right leg. | 10 aṅgulas. | 12, 10 or 9 aṅgulas. |

v4.c35.s3.12

From the fact that the madhyasūtra is required to touch the middle, practically, of the head, the

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śroṇi, the right thigh and the centre of the ankle, we see that the line drawn from the centre of gravity of the heavy figures of Śiva-Naṭarāja is made to fall exactly in the centre of the base, which is generally a broad padmapīṭha, mounted upon a bhadrapīṭha. The perfect stability of the image is thus secured. The projecting limbs such as the two out-stretched arms, the uplifted leg and the back of the body are so symmetrically arranged with reference to this line as to counterpoise each other and not interfere in any way with the stability. Now, if the image were to stand upon only one leg without any other support, there would be the danger of the superincumbent weight acting detrimentally to the strength of the statue; the frail leg may break at the ankle, if the image sustains any accident. To avert such a possibility, the presence of the prabhā-maṇḍala is insisted upon; the out-stretched arms, the large number of jaṭās issuing from the head, a long, flowing strip of cloth which is tied round the middle of the body and the crown of the head are made to touch the prabhāmaṇḍala and are attached to it, thus affording perfect protection from the danger of breaking at the ankle. It might also be noticed that, as a general rule, (a more or less perfect one), the two out-stretched hands and the foot of the

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standing leg are made to lie on the three apices of an inverted equilateral triangle and are practically also on the same plane as that of the *prabhāmaṇḍala*. The height of mathematical calculation as regards distances and masses in the making of perfectly stable and strong images is, it might be stated, attained in the casting of the often bulky and large images of Śiva-Naṭarāja.

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