Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus c4.s3: Of Pillars
Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus c4.s3
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Of Pillars
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The fifteenth chapter of the *Mánasára* treats of the several sorts of pillars, their various dimensions, forms, and ornaments, as does likewise the ninth section of the *Cásyapa*: the two together seem to afford all the requisite information on this head. "The height of a pillar," says *Mánasára*, "when placed on a base only, or both on a base and pedestal, is measured from the plinth (of the former) up to the lowest part of the entablature," that is, from the base to the capital inclusive. A passage in the *Cásyapa* states, that the measurement may also be taken from the cimbia of the shaft, exclusive of the base. "Let the height of the pillar," continues the first-mentioned author, "be divided into twelve, eleven, ten, nine, or eight parts, and one be taken for the breadth of the foot of the shaft; and the same being divided again by the number of parts of which the height of the pillar may consist, let the upper extremity of it be diminished by one of those parts respectively." "The height of the pillar," says *Cásyapa*, "may be three times that of the base, or six or eight times that of the pedestal; the breadth of the pillar may be a sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, or tenth part of its height; if it be made of wood or stone, one-third, or one-fourth, or one-sixth of the height if it be a pilaster joined to a wall, (*cudyastambha*)."
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Various names are given to pillars, by way of distinction, with regard to their forms: "A square pillar is called *brahmacánta*; an octangular one, *vishnucánta*; that which is circular or has sixteen sides, *rudracánta*; that which has five sides, *sivacánta*; and that which has six sides, *s'chanda-cánta*." The whole shaft may be of the same form, or in pillars of other forms, than square; the bottom, middle, and top may be quadrangular, and the intermediate spaces of other forms. "If the whole shaft from bottom to top be uniformly cylindrical and devoid of ornament, it is called *chandracánta*.
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A minute technical description is here given by the two authors above-mentioned, of the various ornaments with which the several sorts of pillars are adorned, but as an accurate idea can be formed of them only by ocular observation of these decorations, it has been deemed unnecessary to follow our text too closely on this subject. It may, however, be useful to take a general view of the different kinds of pillars and their ornaments as described by *Mánasára*, illustrating them by designs, partly taken from his descriptions, and partly from the models found in temples and porticoes of a pure Hindú style.
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Pillars of Indian architecture may, with respect to the dimensions, be divided into seven sorts.
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The first sort[^asterisk] is a column six diameters high; it is rarely made but upon a high base and pedestal. The entablature is more than half the altitude of the column; and the intercolumniation generally four diameters. The pedestal is of the second sort of the *pratibandha* kind, see Plate I.; and its height is equal to that of the base, which is one-third of that of the column itself, or two diameters. The base is called *manchabandha*, and is divisible into thirty parts. The capital is equal in height to the upper diameter of the shaft, and its projection is equal to its height. The form of the capital is called *pushpabandha*. “The height of the capital,” says *Mánasára*, “may be either equal to the breadth of the shaft, or one-half or three-quarters of it, according as it may appear proportionate to the size of the column.” Let the breadth of it be either one, one and a-quarter, half, or three-quarters of the diameter.” I cannot find in any of the authors a description of this capital, and it is only mentioned by name by *Mánasára* and others. I have given the design of it from the specimens found in buildings in the vicinity of Madras; and the artists call it in Tamil *pútaleibódicai*, literally “flower-headed capital.”
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The entablature placed on this column does not differ from that placed on other pillars, except, perhaps, in the height, which I have already stated to be very great. On this subject *Mánasára* observes generally, “The whole height of the entablature may be either three-quarters, one, one and a-quarter, one and a-half, one and three-quarters, or twice that of the base.” “The height of the entablature may be a half, one-fourth, or three-quarters of that of the shaft.” “Or the height of the pillar being divided into eight parts, six, five, three, or two may be given to that of the entablature.” “The height of the entablature is measured from the architrave up to the corona.” Its form will be described in another place.
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[^asterisk]: In the following description of pillars every member belonging to an order is considered, and particularly the entablature, which is made the subject of a distinct chapter in the *Mánasára*.
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The second sort of column is seven diameters in height; it is placed in most examples upon a base and pedestal; the base is two diameters high; it belongs to the species called *cumbhandha*. (See Plate II.)
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The pedestal is equal in height to three-fourths of the base, and is of the kind called *védibadhra* (Plate I.) The column is also placed, as may be seen in another design (Plate IV.), only on a pedestal which is equal to half the height of the pillar, and which is one of the sorts called *munchabhadra*. The capital given to the first design of this pillar is taken from a model found at *Tiruvattúr*, near Madras; it is the same which *Mánasára* and others call *tarangabódhica*, and is one diameter high and projects equal to its height. Speaking of this sort of capital, *Mánasára* says, “it should be decorated with *tarangas*[^asterisk] and other appropriate ornaments; the height of the capital being divided into twelve parts, let the form of *tarangas* occupy three of them, let the *bódhica* (capital), which should resemble the cobra de capello, occupy six, and adorned with flowers and the like, and let one part above this be given to \* \* \* \*,dagger one to the *cima*, and one to the *listel*. The projecting part of the *bódhica* should be fashioned like the stalk of a plantain flower. At the upper extremity are the *tarangas*, of equal height or something more. The lower part of the head of the *bódhica* is one-third of the upper in breadth, and a third of the former being divided into five parts, one of them is given to the cavetto, one to the fillet, two to the *cima*, and one to the *listel*: and the whole should be decorated with foliages, rows of gems, and the like.” In another place the same author says, “Let the capital (*bódhica*) be made to consist of one, two, three, four, five, or six faces, according to the situation in which it is placed.”
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dagger † Here a word in the original manuscript is not legible. \* The forms of this ornament may be seen in Plate VI.
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The other form of capital given to the column in the second design, is taken from a *mantápa* at *Maylapúr*. It is to be met with in many other
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[^asterisk]: * Literally *waves*, a term applied to denote the projecting moulding employed in capitals, terminating by a number of undulating lines. See Plate IV. fig. 2.
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ancient buildings, and is what the artists call in Tamil *surul-bódhica*, roll capital. I cannot find any particular description of it, except a passage in the *Mánasára*, which says, “the projecting ornaments on the sides of the capital are made either in the form of an inverted apex or of a *chacra*, wheel, or circle.” It is one diameter in height, and projects but three-quarters of the diameter.
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There is not any particular rule respecting the intercolumniation of these or any other sorts of pillars; but in porticoes, where these pillars are found, the space between one column and another exceeds three diameters. The general rule laid down in the *Mánasára* is this: “The intercolumniation may be either two, three, four, or five diameters; it is measured in three ways, 1st. from the inner extremity of the base of one pillar to that of another; 2dly. from the centre of the two pillars; and, 3dly. from the outer extremities of the pillars including the two bases.” The latter method of measuring the intercolumniations is, I am inclined to believe, applicable to the pilasters in gateways or temples only, not to simple colonnades.
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The third sort of column, with its base and capital, is eight diameters high, with a diminution of the shaft at the top of the eighth part of the thickness at its bottom. The base occupies half a diameter, and this height is to be divided into ten parts; two to be given to the plinth, one to the fillet; three to the *cimacia* and its fillet, one and a half to the cavetto, the same to the torus, and one to the *cimbia*. The whole projection of the base is half of its height. The following passage from the *Mánasára* refers to this kind of base: “Let a base ornamented with the lotus be made under the foot of the pillar, one or two diameters in height, and let it be adorned with figures of demons, lions, and the like.”
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The height of the capital, which is made after the manner of the *p’haláca*[^asterisk] is three-quarters of the lower diameter of the column, and is
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[^asterisk]: * The forms of this ornament may be seen in Plate VI.
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divided into thirteen parts; two are given to the abacus, one to the fillet, two to the *madana*,[\*] seven to the cimarecta, and one to the cimbia. The upper part of the shaft, about one and a half diameters below the capital, being divided into twenty-four parts, three are given to the collarino with its fillet, three to the ovolo, three to the lower collarino, five to the lower torus with its cimacia, and ten below to the strings of pearls (*muctadháma*).[\*] The projection of the capital is one diameter, or about an eighth part beyond that of the lowest part of the base; the fillets project the full, and the torus three-quarters of their respective heights.
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The height of the entablature is one-fourth of that of the column. It is to be divided into twenty-one parts, eight are given to the architrave, seven to the cornice, and six to the *vyálam*.[†] Of the eight parts of the architrave, one is to be given to the cavetto, three to the tena or benda (*uttara*) with its listels, two to the cimarecta, and two to the upper facia (*vájina*). Of the seven parts of the cornice, one occupies the fillet, and the remainder the ovolo (*prastara*); and of the six parts of the cornice, three to be given to the cavetto, two to the *prativájina*, and one to the fillet. The projection of the *vájina*[‡] of the architrave is equal to that of the capital, that of the *prastara* is twice as much, and that of the cornice equal to its own height. After making a similar division of the entablature, our author lays down the following rule respecting the projection of the members. "The height of the architrave being divided into four, five, six, seven, or eight parts, one should be given to its projection beyond the pillars. The *capóta*[§] projects equal to its height, or to three-fourths of it, and the *vájina* one-fourth." "The *álinga* recedes about one diameter, and the *antarita* projects equal to its own height, and the same may be said of the *prati*."
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† A moulding used above the cornice, and which takes its name from being generally ornamented with the figures of the animal called *vyála*.
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‡ A square moulding so called.
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§ The projecting member of the cornice.
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The fourth sort of column is nine diameters high. The base is one of those called *pratib’hadra*, and is one diameter in height. It is without a pedestal.
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The base is to be divided into eighteen equal parts, two to be given to the plinth, one to its fillet, three to the cimarecta, three to the cavetto with its listel, three to the torus, three to the upper cavetto, two to the platband, and one to the cimbra. The projection of the plinth is one-third of the height of the whole base; the torus and the height, and the middlemost square is ornamented with the petals of a lotus. "The altitude of the capital," says *Cásyapa*, "may be equal to the higher, lower, or the middle diameter of the column. Its breadth may be equal to its height, or four or five diameters." "A capital the height of which is from one to two diameters, and the breadth twice its height, is of the superior sort; and that which in height is half the diameter, and in breadth from one to three diameters, is of the inferior sort."
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In colonnades of porticoes, the intercolumniations are found to be from one diameter and a half to two diameters.
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The sixth sort of pillar is eleven diameters high. The design made to illustrate this is selected from among the pillars found at Canjevcram; it represents a square pillar of the same height, exclusive of the base, which is composed of a plinth, a cimarecta, and torus, with their fillets, and is one diameter high. The same pillar, including the base, may be taken as an example also of the seventh sort, which ought to be twelve diameters in height.cont:∗ "When the pillar," says *Cásyapa*, "is measured in height from the upper fillet of the base it is called *mgata-stamb'ha*, but when it is measured from the plinth below it, is termed *nichata-stamb'ha*."
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cont:∗ * See Plate VI.
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At the foot of the shaft, a space equal in height to the hypothenuse of the lower diameter is made quadrangular, around which are sculptured images of the deities, and the like, in bas-relief. In about half a diameter above this, is made the ornament called *nágaband'ha*.cont:† The remainder of the shaft, about three diameters and a half, is made to consist of eight sides, including the strings of pearls, which occupy three-quarters of a diameter, and appear to be suspended from the fillet of the upper ornament called *padmaband'ha*,cont:‡ which takes up half a diameter. Next above this is the *calasa* or water-pot, about three-quarters of a diameter; and above this are made, with the same height given to them, three other mouldings, called in the language of architecture, *herica*, *asya*, and *tatica*, which last projects a fourth part of the diameter. Above these again is the lower collarino, in height about a quarter of a diameter, then the ornament called *cumb'ha*, which is half a diameter high and projects as much; next the upper collarino, a little less than the lower one; next the moulding called *p'halaca*, which is one diameter high, and projects equal to its height; next the third collarino, about three-fourths of a diameter; and last of all, the capital of the kind called *pushpaband'ha*, which has already been described.∗
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cont:† † A sort of moulding made in the form of a serpent.
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cont:‡ ‡ A moulding made in the form of a lotus.
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∗ See page 30, and Plate VI.
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This pillar may, according to the definition of its form, be called *vishnucánta*, and appears in most of its ornaments, though not in their proportions, to agree with the description given by *Mánasára* of that which he called *pálicástambha*. He says, "the height of the collarino (*viracant'ha*) should be one diameter of the column; that of the *p'halaca*, one, three-quarters, or two or three diameters, and its projection one-fourth of its height. The height of the *cumb'ha* below the collarino may be half, one-and-a-half, or two diameters, and its breadth equal to the upper or lower collarino. The height of the *táticasya*† is half, or three-quarters of the diameter. Let the lower cima be equal to its height, and let its breadth be one-and-a-quarter diameter. Below that comes the *herica*† of half that height. The height and breadth of the *tática* are equally one diameter. Below that let a *calasa* (water-pot) be made about two diameters in breadth, and let the upper part of it be shaped in the form of a *durdhura* flower, and in such a manner as may appear graceful. Below this, about three-quarters of the diameter should be decorated with strings of pearls.
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† See Plate VI.
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Besides the model referred to in the above description, Plate XVI. contains three more designs of pillars, which may also serve as specimens of those of the seventh sort, so far at least as their dimensions are concerned. The pillars which they represent are to be seen in a portico at *Tiruvana-* *malei*, but I cannot find any thing in the description of pillars contained in the books under examination, like the works sculptured on the shafts of these models. They are probably modern improvements, and their workmanship, like that which adorns the pillars at *Madura*, may be attributed to the skill of the artists of the day. The same may be said of the double pillars which support a beautiful portico at Canjeveram, and on which are sculptured, in alto relief, lions and horses standing upright the full length of the columns; the former treading on elephants, and the latter mounted by armed knights. See Plates XVII. and XVIII.
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The pillars at *Tiruvanamalei* are estimated to be about thirty feet high, with proportionate thickness, diminished at the top by a twelfth part of the lower diameter. There are three kinds of them. The first is placed on a high pedestal and base: the whole shaft is divided into ten compartments, each being equal in height to the hypothenuse of the diameter of the pillar; and on all the four sides of these compartments are sculptured, in relief, four small pillars or pilasters supporting an entablature. The second pillar differs from the first in having two, instead of four, small ornamental pilasters in relief, on each side of the ten compartments into which the shaft is divided, with an ornamented niche in the middle, which in the third specimen is flanked by two small *pancharas* or ornamented cages on both sides of it. The second sort of pillar is placed on a base without a pedestal, and the third on a pedestal without a base. See Plate XVI.
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Having taken the preceding general survey of the several members connected with the orders of Indian architecture, it was my intention to submit a few remarks on such of the orders now in use in modern Europe, as have any correspondence with those of India; but being destitute of European books which treat directly on this subject, I confine myself to the Egyptian, Grecian, and Roman, and to them only with regard to a few leading particulars.
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The difference in the Indian orders, consists chiefly in the proportion between the thickness and height of pillars; while that of the Grecian and Roman orders depends, not only on the dimensions of columns, but also on the form of the other parts belonging to them.
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Concerning the proportions of columns, the second sort of column in the Hindú architecture may be compared with the Tuscan, the third with the Doric, the fourth with the Ionic, and the fifth with the Corinthian or Composite pillar. This affinity between the columns of India and of Rome and Greece is so striking, that one would be apt to ascribe it to something more than mere chance, but there are other columns in the Indian architecture, not only one diameter lower than the Tuscan, but from one to two diameters higher than the Composite.
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The Egyptian columns appear to have no fixed proportion in regard to thickness and height. In some of the specimens of the ruins of Upper Egypt, the height of the columns consists of from four to six times the lower diameter, which last proportion coincides with that of the first sort of the Indian pillar.
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The orders of India, and of Greece and Rome, are remarkable for the beautiful effect of their proportions, a circumstance to which little regard has been paid by the Egyptians.
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Both the Indian and Grecian columns are diminished gradually in their diameter from the base to the summit of the shaft, a practice which has never been observed in the Egyptian; on the contrary, a diametrically opposite rule has been observed in their shafts, which are made narrower at the bottom than at the top, and placed upon a square or round plinth.
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The proportion in which the diminution at the top of the columns of the two former is made, seems to have been regulated by the same principle, though not by the same rule. The general rule adopted by the Hindú architects in this respect. is, that the thickness at the bottom, being divided into as many parts as there are diameters in the whole height of the column, one of these parts is invariably diminished at the top; but in the Grecian and Roman architecture, the diameter of the upper part of the shaft, in a column of fifteen feet in height, is made one-sixth less than its thickness at the base; and in a column of fifty feet, the diminution is one-eighth. The higher the columns are, the less they diminish, because the apparent diminution of the diameter in columns of the same proportion, is always greater according to their height, and this principle is supposed to have been discovered with great scientific skill, and is adduced as one of the proofs of the highly refined taste of the Greeks; but we observe, that precepts derived from the same principle have been taught and practised in India from time immemorial.
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The plan of the Grecian and Roman columns is always round; but the plan of the Hindú columns admits of every shape, and is frequently found in the quadrangular and octangular form, and richly adorned with sculptured ornaments. The form of the Egyptian pillars too, is circular, and their shafts are often fluted like the Corinthian, but the fluting of the Indian columns resembles neither the one nor the other. The decorations of the Egyptian columns often consist in representations " of a bundle of reeds" tied up with a cord on the top, having a square stone placed over it; in some specimens are also found bindings or fillets in various parts of the shaft, and in the interval between them, reeds and hieroglyphics are represented. But there is nothing like these ornaments in the Indian orders, except in the columns found in the excavated temple of Elephanta, and some other places, and which differ materially from those employed in other situations in Hindústan.
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There are no fixed intercolumniations in the Hindú architecture, as are found in the Grecian, but the spaces allowed between pillar and pillar in different Hindú buildings, are found nearly to coincide with the Grecian mode of intercolumniations, though in too many instances they differ widely from it, and the same may perhaps be said of the Egyptian colonnades.
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The Indian pedestals and bases are made more systematically, and afford by far a greater variety of proportions and ornaments, than the Grecian and Roman. In the European architecture, the forms and dimensions of the pedestals and bases are fixed by invariable rules, with respect to the orders in which they are employed; but in the Indian, the choice is left to the option of the artists.
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The capitals of the Grecian columns invariably mark the distinction of the several orders: those of the Indian are varied at pleasure, though not without regard to the diameter and length of the shaft; and the forms of the plainest of them, though they have in reality nothing in common with the Grecian order, are found at a distant view to bear some resemblance to the Doric and Ionic capitals; but those of a more elaborate kind are sometimes so overloaded with a sort of filligree ornaments, as to destroy the effect of the beautiful proportions of the whole. The Egyptian capitals, on the other hand, are formed into elegant vase shapes, decorated with the stalks, leaves, and blossoms of the lotus, and occasionally with palm leaves, which latter ornaments are supposed to have given the first idea of the Corinthian capitals. And in some specimens, the Egyptian capital is composed of the representation of the head of the goddess Isis.
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The entablature of the Indian order admits of little variety, as well in its composition, as in its relative proportions, whereas the same member in the Grecian and Roman architecture, is varied for each order both in form and magnitude. The massiveness of the Indian entablature offers a striking contrast to the lightness of the Grecian; but the richness of the former may be said to be unrivalled.
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In the existing treatises on Hindú architecture, no mention is made of any thing like a substitution of human figures for columns to support the entablature, but the shaft is directed to be adorned with the figures of demons and animals; yet various examples are to be met with in which human figures, as well as representations of animals, are employed in bold relief in the sides of pillars in temples and porticoes, but by no means like those found in Egyptian architecture. The antiquity of this invention in India is not determined, but the Grecian architects refer the origin of their caryatides to the commemoration of their captivity of the Caryan women, while others assert that it was derived from an Egyptian source.
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We now return to the ninth chapter of the *Mánasára*, which treats of villages and towns, and this being made to appear as belonging to architecture, inasmuch as it regards the formation of streets and the allotment of suitable sites for the building of temples, piazzas, &c., I beg leave to subjoin a few extracts from it, trusting that the rules which they contain will serve to trace out the principles upon which a Hindú village or town is built, and that they will not be altogether uninteresting to those who delight in Indian antiquities.
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"The extent of villages or towns is declared to admit of forty varieties, consisting of from five hundred to twenty thousand *dandás* square, each sort exceeding the one immediately below it by five hundred *dandás*. The whole area of a village, with the lands thereunto belonging, being divided into twenty equal parts, one is assigned for the occupation of Brahmans, six or more for that of the three other classes, and the remainder for agriculture."
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"A street that goes round the village or town is called *mangalavít'hí*, which should be from one to five *dandás* in width. That which runs from east to west is called *rájapat'ha*; that which has gates on both sides *rájavít'hí*; that which has *sand'his* or angles, *sand'hivít'hí*; and that which is in a southerly direction, *mahácala* or *vámana*."
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"Previously to building villages, towns, &c., let the *st'hapati* trace upon the ground selected for the purpose, any of the mystical figures described in the seventh chapter, and particularly that which is called *paramasáyica*,[^asterisk]
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[^asterisk]: The seventh chapter of the *Mánasára* describes certain mystical figures which are traced on the ground plan of villages, &c. for the purpose, not only of offering oblations and sacrifices to the divinities who are supposed to preside over their various parts, but also of dividing the area into several compartments, to be applied, according to their supposed fitness, to the building of temples, and the formation of high roads, streets, &c ; to each of which purposes the part over which a certain deity presides is considered more adapted than any other. An enumeration of the several figures, and of the deities presiding over their various parts, would however be little interesting or instructive to the European reader.
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and after offering the prescribed sacrifices to the deities presiding over its various parts, let him proceed to arrange the streets, and mark out sites for building temples, &c., according to the rules laid down in the *Sástras*.”
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“ There are eight sorts of villages or towns, namely, 1. *dandáca* (that which resembles a staff); 2. *sarvatób’hadra* (in every respect happy); 3. *nandyávartta* (the abode of happiness); 4. *padmaca* (that which has the form of a lotus flower); 5. *sivastica* (that which resembles the mystical figure so named); 6. *prastara* (that which has the shape of a conch); 7. *cármuca* (that which resembles a bow); and 8. *chaturmuc’ha* (that which has four faces).
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“ The village called *dandáca* is quadrangular, and surrounded by a square wall. It consists of from one to five parallel streets, running in one direction, generally from east to west, and of two more streets forming right angles at both the extremities of the five parallel streets, and also of a third crossing the middle of them. The breadth of the streets is from one to five *dandás*, and the middlemost may be made broader than the rest. The streets at the extremities or near the walls have a single row of houses; the centre streets a double row, or one on each side. The space occupied by each house should be from three to five *dandás* broad, and from two to four *dandás* long. There should be four large gates, one on each side of the enclosing wall of the village, and as many smaller ones at the several angles. In the part presided over by *Varuna* or *Maytra*, should be erected a temple for *Vishnu*; and in that presided over by *Adita*, at the north-east angle, one dedicated to *Siva*; a shrine, for *Chamunda*,[^asterisk] should be built near the north gate without the wall. There should be two tanks dagger or reservoirs, one towards the south-west and the other towards the north-east. This village
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dagger † The south of India is famous for the beautiful workmanship of its reservoirs, which are generally very spacious, and completely lined with stone, furnished with steps, and ornamented with pavilions, &c.
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[^asterisk]: * The goddess of destruction, a form of *Bhavani*.
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is particularly intended for the residence of Brahmans. It may contain twelve, twenty-four, fifty, one hundred and eight, three hundred or more houses. The smallest, or that which contains twelve houses, is called *ásrama*, hermitage, and ought to be situated near mountains and forests, for the habitation of hermits. The village containing twenty-four houses is to be situated on the banks of a river, and inhabited by *yatis* or holy mendicants: it is called *puram*. That which contains fifty houses should be occupied by those who have performed holy sacrifices, or by householders in general: in the former case, it is called *puram*, and in the latter *mangalam*. The village containing a hundred and eight houses is commonly called *Cos-t'ham*.”
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“The village called *Sarvatóbhadra* is also of a quadrangular form, containing in the middle a temple dedicated to any one of the triad, *Brahma*,[^asterisk] *Vishnu*, or *Mahéswara*. It has four streets of equal length on the four sides within the wall, meeting one another at right angles, and two more crossing each other in the middle. Between these may be formed three, four, five, or as many more streets as the extent of the village will admit on each side parallel to the middlemost street.”
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Here several verses in the original bear allusion to the projections of some of the streets described above, but they are not sufficiently clear to be translated.
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“Without the walls,” continues our text, “should be placed the shrines of the deities who preside over and defend the several quarters of the village; at the angular points should be erected halls, porticos, colleges, and other public edifices; and towards the quarter of *agni* (south-east), a water-shed for the accommodation of travellers and passengers. The whole village should be secured by a quadrangular wall, and a ditch around it, with four large and as many small gates, in the middle of the sides and at the angular points. Without the northern gate should be erected a temple
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[^asterisk]: * The worship of the representation of Brahma is very rare.
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for the worship of *Mahá Cáli*, and the huts of the *chand'álas* or outcasts should be a *crosa*[^asterisk] distant from the village. A tank or reservoir should be constructed either on the south or north side, or near either of these two points, for ablutionary and culinary purposes.”
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“The village called *Nandyávartta*, is either square or oblong. It is divisible into as many parts as are contained in the (mystic) figure called *Chandita* or *Paramasáyica*. The *Chandita* contains sixty-four equal parts, being the square of eight, of which the middle four parts are called *Bráhmya*, or those which belong to *Brahma*, and they should be entirely appropriated to sacred purposes. Around these are twelve parts called *Divya*, or those belonging to the *Dévas*; around these twenty parts called *Mánushya*, or those belonging to mortals; and around these again twenty-eight called *Paysácha*, or those belonging to demons. These several rounds should be occupied by different classes in the order of their superiority, that is Brahmans dagger should have the *Brahmya*, and so with the rest. The figure called *Paramasáyica* contains eighty-one equal parts, being the square of nine, of which the middle nine are *Brahmya*; sixteen around these are *Divya*; twenty-four around these *Mánushya*, and the outermost thirty-two *Paysácha*. This village has four large streets along the inside of the wall by which it is surrounded, running in each direction at right angles; namely, one near the north-west quarter, passing towards the north-east, projects at a small distance beyond the cross street which intersects it; another opening from a little way within the projection runs forward in a south-east direction, and projects in the same manner beyond the intersecting street on that side, and the same may be said of the streets at the two other angular points. The number of streets in the outer compartment should be determined according to its extent, and in the
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dagger † This is a contradiction of the preceding passage, which directs the middle parts called *Brahmya* to be appropriated to religious structures.
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[^asterisk]: * A *crosa* is equal to four thousand yards.
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compartments called *Divya* and *Mánushya* three or four more parallel streets may be made from east to west, with as many cross ones from north to south, forming as it were so many courts or enclosures. Two broad streets run through the middle of the village, from east to west and from north to south, cutting one another in the middle, where there should be erected either “a temple for *Brahma*, or a *mantapa* for general meetings.” At each of the angles of the outermost streets there should be a gateway ornamented with arches and the like. This village is of two sorts, which are also called the one *Mangalam* and the other *Puram*. The former is inhabited only by Brahmans, and the latter by all classes indiscriminately.”
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In this manner the author goes on describing the forms and arrangements of the remaining sorts of villages; but as the accompanying designs (Plates XLIII to XLVI) will, it is hoped, render the subject more intelligible, I shall close this article with one or two more extracts only, respecting the sites and aspects of temples, and regarding some other matters treated of in this chapter.
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“The temples of *Vishnu*, in whatever form that deity may be worshipped, should be erected within the village facing towards the east, except in the incarnation of *Narasinha* (the Man-lion), whose temple should be built without the wall with its face turned from the village or town. That part of the figure which belongs to *Mitra*,[^asterisk] *Bhallata*,[^asterisk] *Arya*,[^asterisk] or *Sauruya*,[^asterisk] should be invariably assigned to the temple of *Vishnu*, but the shrine of *Siva* should be built in the compartments presided over by *Indra*,[^asterisk] *Indraja*,[^asterisk] *Rudra*,[^asterisk] *Rudraga*,[^asterisk] &c. If the emblem of *Siva* (Linga) is to be consecrated according to the *Sidd'hanta A'gama*,dagger it may be placed
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dagger The title of a religious book held in high reverence by the followers of *Siva*, and which treats, 1st, of several species of charities, such as the building of a caravanserai, and digging of tanks and wells for the accommodation of travellers; 2dly, of religious duties diurnal and periodical, of the various kinds of sacraments, and of ceremonies propitious or expiative, in which are included the holy incantations wherewith temples are sanctified, and images of deities deified and adorned; and lastly, of the nature of the godhead and his attributes, of souls, elements, and other principles, and of contemplation, &c. [^asterisk]: * Two rival systems of religious rites and prayers observed among the followers of *Vishnu*.
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[^asterisk]: Denoting certain compartments in the mystic figure before mentioned.
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within the village; if otherwise, it should remain without. In the case of *Vishnu* too, if the idol is to be consecrated according to the system of *Vayghánasa*[^asterisk] it may be admitted within, but if according to the doctrines of *Páncharátra*dagger it should be placed without the village. The shrines of *Durgá*, *Shanmucha*,[^ddagger] and the objects worshipped by *Jainas* and *Baudd'has*, should be erected without the village.”
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“Private houses or mansions may consist of from one to nine stories, but this is to be determined according to the rank of the persons for whom they are built. The lower classes of people must on no account construct their houses of more than a single story or ground floor; and the height of the buildings should correspond in every street, as far as practicable, and in all structures of the same number of stories.”
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“The front, middle, and back-door of a private dwelling-house should be so contrived as to be on the same level, and in the same straight line one with another. Let the outer door be placed, not exactly in the middle of the façade, but a little more to one side than to the other. The general practice is this: if the front of the house be ten paces in length, the entrance should be between five on the right and four on the left. The same rule is to be observed with regard to the gates of temples. In the front of the houses should be erected a *védica*, or raised seat or pedestal on each side of the door.”
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“The gates and doorways of temples and houses of all classes of people should be from one *hasta*[^ddagger] and a half to seven *hastas* in height; the smaller doors, from one to five *hastas*; and the windows, from twelve *angulas* to one *hasta* and a half. The breadth of large gates should be equal to, or a little less than half of their height; or, the height of the door being divided into nine parts, five may be given to its breadth. The height of the door-frame being divided into seven, eight, nine, or ten equal parts, that of the void space should be equal to that of the door-frame, minus one part; a strict conformity to these rules will insure prosperity and happiness.”
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dagger † The wife of *Siva*, an avenging goddess, and her son *Carticéyá*. [^ddagger]: ‡ This perhaps alludes to the height of a window, which follows.
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A whole page after this is employed in enumerating the various sorts of gifts and donations to be made to the artists on the completion of an edifice, and finally in denouncing dire misfortunes to those who withhold such presents from them.
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The next chapter professes to describe *nagaras* or cities; but as it contains nothing farther than an enumeration of several sorts of cities and the various titles of particular princes who are qualified to reside in them, I shall omit it altogether. In order, however, that lofty towers stored with fire-arms and adorned with banners. It was constantly filled with female stage players; it was beautiful with gardens and groves of mango-trees, and enclosed with high walls. It was surrounded by impassable ditches, and secured by fortifications difficult of assault by foreign kings; it was full of horses, elephants, cattle, camels, and mules. It was ornamented with palaces of exquisite workmanship, lofty as mountains, and enriched with jewels, abounding with beautiful houses consisting of several stories, and it shone like *Indra’s* heaven. It was crowded with tributary princes, purified with sacrificial rites, and filled with merchants of foreign countries. Its aspect had an enchanting effect; and the whole city was diversified with various colours, and decorated with regular avenues of sweet-scented trees. It was full of precious stones, and resplendent with stately edifices and beautiful apartments. It was filled with buildings erected close to one another, and without intermediate voids, and situated on a smooth level ground. It abounded in delicious rice, and water sweet as the juice of sugar-cane. It incessantly echoed with the sounds of kettle-drums, tabors, cymbals, and lutes; this city truly surpassed any that was ever beheld on earth. The houses which it contained resembled the celestial mansions which the *Sidd’hás* obtain through the virtue of their austerity.”
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Of the remaining portion of the *Mánásara*, twelve successive chapters, from the eighteenth to the twenty-ninth, are entirely taken up with rules respecting the measurements, &c. of as many sorts of *vimánas* or pyramidal temples. The same subject is also treated of in several sections of the *Cásyapa*.
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“A *vimána* consists, according to the former, ‘of from one to twelve stories;’ and according to the latter, ‘of from one to sixteen stories;’ and ‘is made round, quadrangular, or of six or eight sides.’ The form of the edifice may be uniformly the same from the basement up to the spire, whether it be square, oblong, circular, oval, or the like; or it may be of a mixed nature, composed partly of one and partly of another form.’” “A quadrangular temple is called *nágara*, an octangular *drávid'ha*, and a circular *vésara*.”
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“*Vimánas* are of three sorts, distinguished one from another by the principal materials of which they are formed, as *sud'ha*, pure; *misra*, mixed; and *sancírna*, anomalous. An edifice is called *sud'ha* which is composed of but one kind of material, as stone, brick, &c., and this is considered the best of all. *Misra* is that which is composed of two kinds of materials, as brick and stone, or stone and metals; and *sancírna* is that which is composed of three or more kinds of materials, as timber, stone, brick, metal, &c.”
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“*Vimánas* are further distinguished into three kinds, namely, *st'hánaca*, *ásana*, and *sáyana*; the first having reference to the height, the second to the breadth, the third to the length. Moreover, the idol to be placed in the *vimána*, called *st'hánaca*, should be in an erect posture; that to be placed in the *ásana*, in a sitting; and that to be placed in the *sayana*, in a recumbent posture.”
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“*Vimánas* are again divided into five sorts, with respect to their magnitude. They are called *sántica*,¹ *paustica*,² *jayada*,³ *atbhuta*,⁴ and *sarvacáma*.⁵ The breadths of these five kinds of temples being divided into seven, six, five, four, and three parts in due order; ten, nine, eight, and seven of those parts are given to their respective heights.”
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¹ * The moderate.
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² † The bulky.
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³ ‡ The victorious.
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⁴ § The admirable.
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⁵ ∥ The universally beloved.
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“Temples consist of the *garb'hagriha* (the womb of the house), the *antarála* (the anti-temple), and the *ard'ha mantapa* (the front portico). The diameter of the whole length of the building, including the walls, is to be divided into four and a-half or six parts; and the *garb'hagriha* to take up two, two and a half, or three; the *antarála*, one and a-half or two; and the *ard'ha mantapa*, one or one and a-half.⁶ “Temples on a large scale have three or four successive porticoes attached to them in the front, which are called *ard'ha-mantapa*, *maháman-tapa*, *st'hapana mantapa*, *urittya mantapa*, &c. *Ard'hamantapas* are sometimes made broader than the *garb'hagriha*, in which case the width of the former is either once and a-half or twice that of the latter. In the event of the three compartments being of the same breadth, the length of the whole should be two and a-half the breadth.”
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⁶ ¶ Sometimes a portico is made round the *garb'hagriha* and *antarála* together, the whole being closed closed by walls on all the sides but the front, in which are the doors for entrance, approached by the front portico, which is generally a peristyle, and it serves as the innermost court around which people perform their circumambulations; I say the innermost court, because there are other courts around the whole temple.
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“The breadth of the *garb'hagriha* being divided into three, four, five, seven, nine, eleven, thirteen, or fifteen parts, let two, three, four, five, six, seven, or eight be allowed to the interior space, and the remainder take up the thickness of the walls on all sides.”
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“The thickness of the wall being divided into twelve equal parts, let five or six be given to the door-frames or posts without, and seven or eight to the inside of the door. The door-frames or posts may be placed either in the middle or at the extremity of the point of the division before mentioned.”
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“The height of the pillars of the *vimána* is to be divided into ten or eight equal parts; and nine, eight, or seven of them are given to that of the doorway, the breadth of which is to be half its height.”
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“In temples, and houses of Brahmans and others, two-leafed doors may be used. The doors are turned either by means of a perpendicular cylinder, one end of which rests on the ground, or by hinges. The outside of the door-frames are ornamented with foliages, &c., and on the architrave of the door, and on both sides of it, are carved the images of the gods and goddesses presiding over gates and door-ways.”
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“Let a water-spout be made over the base on the back wall of the *garb'hagriha*, on the left side of the idol, either towards the east or the north, according as the temple may face towards the south or the east. The thickness of the spout should be either eight, ten, twelve, fourteen, or sixteen *angulas*. Its length should be equal to the *ad'hist'hána*, which length being divided into three equal parts, one is given to the projection below (*lambana*). The breadth of the bottom of the spout is to be divided into five parts, and three to be given to the breadth of the sloping extremity below. The whole spout being divided into five parts, three to be given to the *cugmala*,[^asterisk] one to the *padma*,[^\dagger] and one to the *vajina* or fillet. On the surface of the spout a cavity is to be made for discharging the water, from one to five *angulas* broad. The breadth of the cavity at the end should be three-fifths of that at the bottom. The spout may be made to spring from the head of a lion, &c., and the whole so devised as to project like a plantain flower.”
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To these observations succeeds a detailed enumeration of the proportions of the different sorts of *vimánas*, consisting of from one to twelve stories; but as it would be extremely tiresome to specify the whole, even in the most abridged form, I shall insert the measurements of a few sorts only, which, with the assistance of the designs that accompany this essay, will, it is hoped, serve as a standard by which to determine the proportions of the rest of this class of buildings.
Linked texts (6)
- Mānasāra — Sanskrit
- Pañcarātra — Bhāsa, Sanskrit
- Vaikhānasa — Sanskrit
- Kāśyapadharmasūtra — Kaśyapa, Sanskrit
- Śāstra
- Kanchipuram