South-Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses c12: Chapter VII. Miscellaneous Deities

South-Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses c12

Language: English

c12.s1 I — 1 part
c12.s2 II — 142 parts

Chapter VII. Miscellaneous Deities

I

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Of the miscellaneous gods found in South-Indian temples, mention may be made of the Navagrahas or "the nine Planets" headed by the Sun. They are installed within the enclosed verandah round the central shrine of a temple with or without a special structure erected over them. The Sun stands in the centre and the others are fixed round him, each in a specified direction. The Planets are highly respected and scrupulously worshipped by the people, as they are believed to influence the destinies of human beings.

II

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The worship of the Sun in India has been as old as the Vēdas. Dr. Bhandarkar refers to a special class of sun-worshippers in the North called Magas whom he identifies with the Magi of ancient Persia.¹ In the South, there does not appear to be any such class exclusively devoted to the Sun. The worship is common to all. Āditya-grihas (Sun-shrines) are mentioned in inscriptions of the eighth and ninth centuries of the Christian era, in the northern districts of the Presidency; in later times temples of Traipurushadēva are found dedicated to Sun, Siva and Vishnu, with much prominence given to the first as indicated by the sculptures. Evidence of the building of separate Sun-temples in Southern India, earlier than the twelfth century A.D., has not yet been found. The only temple thus far known to be dedicated to the Sun and his attendant Planets exclusively, is the one at Sūriyanārkōyil in the Tanjore district.²

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¹ *Vaishnavism, Saivism, etc.*, pp. 151 to 155.

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² Madras Epigraphical Report for 1908, Part II, paragraph 60.

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The image of the Sun-god, according to the Āgamas, is always to be placed in the centre of the Planets, looking eastward. Round, red, and decorated with red flowers, he must be clothed in garments of variegated colours with flags on his car. The car must have one wheel, drawn by seven horses and be driven by the charioteer Aruna who is represented without legs. The Sun is supposed to be a Kshatriya (sometimes, a Brāhmana) born of the sage Kasyapa. He is the lord of the Kalinga country,¹ wears a mail armour (kavacha) and robes in the northern fashion.² According to the Matsya-Purāna, he is represented seated (or standing) on a lotus seat, holding lotus flowers in his hands and is ever engaged in going round and round the mountain Mēru (fig. 143). His banner is the lion. This is the description of the Sun as the chief of Planets. But within the flaming Orb is recognized the god Nārāyana (Vishnu) whose body is golden, who assumes the forms of Brahmā in the morning, Mahēśvara (Siva)³ in the midday and Vishnu in the evening. In this composite form he is seated on a lotus pedestal with crocodile ear-rings (makara-kundala) and a crown and exhibits in his hands the conch and discus and all the characteristic weapons of the Trimūrti. An illustration from Chidambaram (fig. 144) evidently represents Sūrya as composed of Brahmā, Mahēśvara and Vishnu, though the symbols held in the hands do not clearly indicate the same. On the pedestal are shown seven horses driven by Aruna, who, though believed to be without legs, is here represented with them.

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¹ It may be noted that a famous temple of the Sun is at Konark in the Kalinga country.

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² Varāhamihira’s description of the images of the Sun is given by Dr. Bhandarkar on page 54 of his treatise on Vaishnavism, Saivism, etc. It is inferred from this that the dress worn by him must be non-Indian in its origin. The Avyanga which is also stated to encircle the Sun round his waist is identified with the Aivyaonghen of the Avesta language and is taken to signify the kusti worn by the Parsees of the present day.

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³ In the Prayōgaratna the Sun is invoked along with the gods Agni and Rudra. The former is described as the presiding deity of the Sun-god while the latter is the chief source of his energy.

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Sūrya is also supposed to be the manifest form of the three Vēdas,⁴ the sole supporter of universal space, resplendent in his car, surrounded by his consorts, Planets and the celestial damsels. Twelve different forms of the Sun (and sometimes thirty-two) are described, one having red light, another white light and so on. Hēmādri says that on the right and left sides of the Sun respectively, are represented the attendant gods Danda-Pingala and Ati-Pingala worshipping him, with pen and paper in their hands. His sons Rēvanta,⁵ Yama and the two Manus and his four wives Rājni, Svarnā, Chhāyā and Suvarchasā also stand on either side of him. It may be noted that a mystic diagram called the Sūrya-yantra is intimately connected with his worship as in the case of the Sakti goddesses. It is stated to be a circle bounded one after another, by a triangle, a circle, a square and two circles of eight and sixteen radii respectively.

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⁴ The seven horses of the Sun are accordingly interpreted to be the seven metres (chhandas) of the Vēdas.

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⁵ In inscriptions Rēvanta is quoted as the model of a superior horseman.

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FIG. 143.—Sūrya ; Kumbakōnam.

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FIG. 144.—Sūrya; Chidambaram.

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The Moon is regarded as one of the Planets surrounding the Sun and going round and round the mountain Mēru. He is born of the Sea and of sage Atri and is supposed to be of the Vaisya caste. He is said to have only face and hands but no body. He turns towards the Sun, holds white lotuses in his two hands (or sometimes a club and the boon-conferring hand) and rides on a two-wheeled¹ chariot drawn by ten horses. Kuja (Mars) is a Kshatriya of Avantī, the son of the Earth and of sage Bharadvāja, wears red garments and a crown and has four arms in which are seen the weapons, club and sakti and the postures varada and abhaya. He faces the Sun and rides on a ram. Budha (Mercury), the son of the Moon, is a Vaisya of the Magadha country born in the lineage of Atri. He has four arms, a yellow body, and the lion vehicle. He shows in his hands the shield, club, varada and the sword and faces the Sun. Brihaspati (Jupiter) is a Brāhmana, born of Angiras. He comes from the Sindhu country and has either four or two arms, holding, in the latter case, the book and the rosary. He also faces the Sun. Sukra (Venus), likewise, is a Brāhmana born of Bhrigu and a native of Bhōjakata. According to Hēmādri he is seated in a golden chariot drawn by eight horses or in a silver chariot yoked to ten horses. He has two hands in one of which he holds a nidhi “treasure” and, in the other, a book. According to other authorities he has four arms in which are seen the staff, rosary, water-pot and the varada. Sani or Sanaischara (Saturn) is a Sūdra of the Saurāshtra country, and a descendant of Kasyapa, also facing the Sun. He is supposed to be born of the Sun, to have blue garments and to ride on a vulture or in an iron chariot drawn by eight horses. He is represented with two or four hands and stands on a lotus pedestal, but is more often found seated with four hands, his weapons being the arrow, trident and the bow. Rāhu and Kētu, the ascending and the descending nodes, are also represented as images (fig. 145). The former is described as a Sūdra of Paithan with a fearful face, black clothes and four arms, holding the sword, trident and the shield. He rides on a black lion and faces the Sun. Kētu is also a Sūdra, comes from Kusadvīpa and is born in the lineage of Jaimini. He has an ugly face, rides on a vulture and exhibits in his two arms the club and the varada posture.

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¹ Some authorities say that the chariot is to be three-wheeled.

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FIG. 145.—Rāhu and Kētu ; Chidambaram.

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The next group of gods, frequently depicted though not as DIKPĀLAKAS. frequently worshipped as the Planets, are the Dikpālakas, “the eight lords of the quarters.” These are mostly found represented on the central panel of the ceiling in the Mahā-mandapa of a temple.

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Indra, the lord of the east, is the chief of them. He is a INDRA. Vēdic god; the lord of all the minor gods. But he has long ago lost the high position assigned to him in Vēdic times. The story runs that he seduced Ahalya,¹ the wife of sage Gautama, who cursed him for his lewdness to wear about his body marks of his lascivious conduct, but subsequently changed those marks into a thousand eyes dotted all over his body. Accordingly he is still known as “the thousand-eyed” (Sahasr-āksha). Indra is represented with four arms riding on the celestial elephant Airāvata of four tusks (fig. 146). According to the Silpasāra the symbols which he presents are the bow, the protecting hand, the conch and the discus.² Hēmādri adds that his wife Sachī with two arms must be seated on his left thigh. In three of his hands he holds a lotus, goad and a thunderbolt, while the fourth passes round the back of Sachī. One of the arms of Sachī, likewise, is passed round the back of Indra, the other holding a bunch of flowers of the wish-giving tree (kalpa-vriksha).

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¹ See also the Journal of Indian Art and Industry, No. 106, Plate 143, fig. 1020.

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² The Bhattabhāskariya mentions abhaya, varada, sword and the elephant goad.

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Agni, the lord of the south-east quarter, is also one of the AGNI. Vēdic gods and perhaps the most prominent of them. As the carrier of offerings to the various other gods in heaven, he plays an important part in the Srauta sacrifices and in the Smārta ceremonials, where fire oblations are essential. Every Brāhmana house-holder, strictly so called, is required to maintain the sacred fire in his house without quenching it and to offer oblations regularly three times a day, along with his usual prayers to Gāyatrī. Agni, as an image, is represented to be an old man; he is the oldest of the gods and a counter-part of the Sun on earth. He has a red body, two heads, six eyes, seven arms, seven tongues, four horns and three legs.

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FIG. 146.—Indra; Chidambaram.

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He is surrounded by a circle of light, is seated on a lotus pedestal¹ and is supposed to reside in a quadrangle—evidently the quadrangular sacrificial fire-pit. In his seven arms he holds the vessels *prōkṣaṇi* (sprinkler), *srik* (ladle), *sruva* (spoon), *pūrṇa-pātra* (vessel full of water), *tōmara* (pestle), fan and the ghee-pot, required in performing a sacrifice. He has braided hair, red garments and a big belly and wears the sacred thread *yajñōpavita*. His vehicle is the ram and his banner, the smoke issuing from the sacrificial fire-pit (fig. 146). He is attended on either side by his two wives Svāhā and Svadhā. Hēmādri describes him as having a single face, three eyes, moustaches and four arms. He rides in a chariot drawn by four parrots and driven by the god of winds, Vāyu. His wife Sāvitrī is seated on his left thigh, with a vessel of gems in her hand. In three of his arms Agni holds two flaming tridents and a rosary.

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¹ Or the half-moon seat (*ardhachandr-āsana*) according to the *Mayamato*.

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Yama, the lord of the south and the god of Death, has been YAMA. already referred to in the description of the Siva image called Kālahā or Kālaharamūrti. He is dark of colour, exhibits the club, noose, *abhaya* and *varada* in his four arms and rides on a buffalo. The illustration from Chidambaram (fig. 148) shows only two hands in which are held the club and the noose. Hēmādri mentions as his symbols the staff, sword, a flaming trident and the rosary. His wife called Dhūmrōrnā is seated on his left thigh and holds a lime fruit in her left hand. To the right of Yama stand Chitragupta, Udīchya and others who keep a record of the actions of men. To his left stands the fierce Kāla with the death-noose in his hand. Two women called Dharmā “virtue” and Adharmā “vice” are seen on either side of Yama with *chauris* in their hands.

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Nairrita, the lord of the south-west region, is supposed to NAIRRITA. be the chief of the Rākṣasas. He rides on a man, wields the mace and the javelin and has Kālikā for his wife. In the Kālikā-Purāṇa he is described as having two hands, holding a sword and shield and riding on an ass. He causes terror to demons, devils and spirits (fig. 149).

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Varuna the regent of the west is also the lord of the ocean VARUNA and of all aquatic animals. He has the crocodile vehicle and four arms. In the two upper hands he holds the serpent and the noose (fig. 150). According to Hēmādri he is seated in a chariot drawn by seven swans. In his four hands he holds the lotus, noose, conch and a vessel of gems and has FIG. 150.—Varuna; Lēpākshi.

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FIG. 147.—Agni; Chidambaram.

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FIG. 148.—Yama ; Chidambaram.

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FIG. 149.—Nairrita Ahōbalam.

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an umbrella held over his head. The goddesses Gaṅgā and Yamunā, holding *chauris* in their hands, stand on either side of him, the former riding on the crocodile and the latter on the tortoise.

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VĀYU. Vāyu, the lord of the north-west, is blue in colour. In his hands are seen a fan, flag, *varada* and *abhaya*. He rides on a deer (fig. 151). An image of Vāyu at Chidambaram shows him only with two hands of which the right holds the flag and the left rests on the waist.

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KUBĒRA. Kubēra, the lord of the north and the god of treasures, is a fat, ugly person as his name implies, but serene or self-satisfied and rides on a horse (fig. 152). Hēmādri describes him as riding on a man with his wife Riddhi¹ seated on his left thigh. He is the chief of the demi-gods called Yakshas and Kinnaras. Two treasures personified, viz., Sankhanidhi and Padmanidhi, are supposed to attend upon him on either side. He is the friend of Siva the lord of the adjoining north-east quarter.

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¹ The *Bhattabhāskarīya* calls her Chitrini.

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Nāgas. The worship of the "serpents" (Nāgas)² is prevalent all over India and particularly so in the west coast of the Madras Presidency, where a corner of a house or of a field is exclusively dedicated to the living cobra so that it may dwell there with its family group. In other parts of the Presidency on a particular day of the year sacred to the Nāgas, milk, fruit and coconut are placed near a snake-hole with the object of feeding the cobra. Nāga-images cut on stones as plain serpents with one, three, five, seven or nine hoods, are also worshipped. Sometimes these have a human body above the navel and a serpent's coils below. Female snakes are said to have one hood only.

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² It is mentioned in the Buddhist *Niddesa* among the various systems of belief and superstition that prevailed in the fourth century B.C. (Dr. R. G. Bhandarkar's *Vaishnavism, Saivism*, etc., p. 3).

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Snake-stones are installed in temples and other places, on specially prepared platforms under the shade of the *pipal* and the margosa trees. A ceremony called "the marriage of the *pipal-tree*" is performed both by Brahmans and non-Brahmans, when Nāga stones are also fixed under these trees amidst great rejoicing. The connexion of the Nāgas with the *pipal* and the margosa trees is evidently a relic of the ancient tree and serpent worship. Serpents have been worshipped in India from very early times, earlier even, perhaps, than the Vēdic Sun, Moon and Brahmā. It is believed that a propitiation of the Nāgas conduces towards the production of children. This belief may be traced in other countries also, where there are signs of the once widely prevalent serpent worship. Eight lords of Nāgas are mentioned in the Agamas. The chief of these is Ananta, Sēsha or Ādisēsha, on whose folds Vishnu is supposed to sleep. Fig. 153 represents him in a semi-human form. In an inscription of the twelfth century A.D. the eight Nāgas, Sēsha, Vāsuki, Takshaka, Karkōtaka, Abja (Padma), Mahāmbuja (Mahā-Padma), Sankhadhara and Kulika are invoked to decide about the auspicious or inauspicious nature of the grant.¹

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¹ Madras Epigraphical Report for 1910, p. 117, para. 60.

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FIG. 151.—Vāyu; Lēpākshi.

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FIG. 152.—Kubēra; Lēpākshi.

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Besides the Nāgas mentioned in the previous paragraph, there are other groups of demi-gods and demons largely depicted in Hindu temples, such as the Yakshas, Vidyādharas, Gandharvas, Apsarasas, Kinnaras and Rākshasas.² These are made to serve, generally, as chauri-bearers to the gods and are represented with a light body flying in the air. They have generally two hands, two eyes and the karandamakuta crown. The Mānasāra describes the Kinnaras as having the legs of a cock the middle part of their body being human and the face beaked like Garuda with spreading wings. They wear a crown on their heads and hold a vinā in their arms. A sketch from Rāmēsvaram illustrates a female Kinnarī (fig. 154). The origin and description of these groups of demi-gods are given by W. J. Wilkins in Chapter XI of his Hindu Mythology. Also, the figures of these in their various postures are beautifully illustrated in the rock sculptures known as “Arjuna’s Penance” at Mahābalipuram.

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² See Visvakarma, Part V, plate 66.

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The Dvārapālas seen at the entrance into almost every Hindu shrine are also demi-gods and bear different names being sometimes called Chanda and Prachanda, sometimes Jaya and Vijaya, or Harabhadra and Subhadra according as they occupy the second, third or fifth door-way opening into the shrine. In the standing figures of Dvārapālas the right leg is placed straight on the pedestal (svastika) and the left is slightly bent (kunchita). The posture of their body may be: (1) with legs and back partly turned to front; (2) hands resting on the thigh which then is bent in the shape of a plough; or (3) with both hands supporting the gōpura. The Silpasangraha states that in form the Dvārapālas are like bhūtas with two big hands in one of which they hold a club. They have protruding canine teeth, when Saiva, and narrow waists; are beautiful in form, but disfigured in the face (fig. 155).¹ Figures of Dvārapālas are sometimes also found to have four arms and to hold the Saiva or the Vaishnava symbols according as they are placed in Siva or Vishnu temples. The fine image (fig. 156) of a Dvārapāla from Dhārāsuram, Tanjore district, which has four arms and is probably Saiva, is stated to have been brought as a trophy from Kalyānapura (i.e., Kalyāna in the Nizam's Dominions), by the Chōla king Rājādhirāja I, in the middle of the eleventh century A.D. Entrances into the shrines of goddesses are attended by Dvārapālikās just as those of the gods are guarded by Dvārapālas.

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¹ In the Silpasāra the Dvārapālas of Siva temples are stated to be Nandi and Mahākāla at the eastern entrance; Bhringi and Vināyaka at the southern entrance; the sacred Bull and Skanda at the western entrance and Chandi at the northern.

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FIG. 153.—Ādiśēsha; Chidambaram.

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FIG. 154.—Kinnarī; Rāmēśvaram.

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Saints and Sages are also not infrequently figured in temples. The latter include the Vēdic rishis and the authors of the early sacred literature of the Hindus, represented as old men, serene and unmindful of mundane affairs. The sacred thread, braided hair, flowing beards and moustaches form the special features of rishi images. They are seated in a meditative posture with the rosary or book and the water-pot or staff in their hands. The seven famous sages Gautama, Bharadvāja, Visvāmitra, Kasyapa, Jamadagni, Vasistha and Atri are occasionally also represented with their wives, while Nārada, Agastya, Bhrigu, Angiras, etc., are surrounded by their disciples. Nārada (fig. 157) is distinguished from other sages by the vinā which he holds in his hands, being always engaged in singing the praises of Vishnu. In Purānas he is described as fond of setting up one against the other and creating quarrels. Hence in common parlance Nārada represents a tale-bearer. Agastya (fig. 158) is dwarfish in stature and pot-bellied.² He is supposed to have migrated from north to south and to have dwelt there permanently and developed the Tamil language of which he is said to be the first grammarian. Kapila, the founder of the Sānkhya system of Hindu philosophy, holds a water-pot on his lap and has in his two hands the conch and the discus.³ Dhanvantari, the presiding sage of the Indian Medical Science, is supposed to be a form of Vishnu and is found generally figured in company of the Asvins,¹ who are the physicians of the gods. He holds a pot of nectar in his hands.

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² A bronze illustration from Nallūr is given in the Madras Archæological Survey Report for 1911-12, Plate A, fig. 2.

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³ In Visvakarma, Part I, Plate 52, a totally different form of Kapila, from Ceylon, is given. Perhaps he is not identical with the sage described here.

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¹ These are the two gods Nāsatya and Dasra mentioned in the Vēdas. They are of the form of a horse except in their faces and are found together, seated on the same lion-pedestal. In two of their arms they exhibit the *abhaya* and the book. On their right are represented the medical herbs *Mritasamjivanī* and *Visalyakaranī* and on their left, the sages Dhanvantari and Ātrēya (?).

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FIG. 155.--Dvārapāla ; Tiruvottiyūr.

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FIG. 156.—Dvārapāla; Dhārāsuram.

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FIG. 157.—Nārada; Chidambaram.

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FIG. 158.—Agastya; Chidambaram.

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Among the human beings who have attained sainthood may be included the great religious reformers such as Sankarāchārya, Rāmānujāchārya, Madhvāchārya and others. The first is represented as a *sannyāsin* (mendicant) with a bald head and a body besmeared with ashes. He holds a book in his left hand and shows the *chinmudrā*, the teaching pose of fingers, in the other. The staff and the water-pot (*kundikā*) which are the symbols of the *sannyāsins*, are found placed by his side. Seated on the tiger's skin in the *padmāsana* posture he is surrounded by attendant pupils. Sankarāchārya may also be found decorated with a necklace of *rudrāksha*-beads which are sacred to Siva. The illustration from Tiruvottiyūr (fig. 159) shows Gaulīsvara (Gauda-pāda ?), the teacher's teacher of Sankarāchārya, with four arms, occupying the highest seat. Below him to the right is Sankarāchārya and below him on the pedestal are depicted the latter's four pupils. Rāmānujāchārya has the *sānjali-mudrā*, i.e., hands folded together over the breast in a worshipping posture, the triple staff (*tridanda*) and a head-dress. He wears the Vaishnava caste marks *ūrdhvapundra* (or *nāmam*) made of white clay and red pigment (fig. 160 (d)). Vēdānta-Dēsika (fig. 160 (b)) is also a Srī-Vaishnava teacher of great fame. Madhvāchārya, like Sankara, is a bald-headed *sannyāsin* with the *chinmudrā*, the book, the staff and the *kundikā*. He wears the caste mark *ūrdhvapundra* and the Vaishnava symbols of conch, discus, etc., made on his body either of sandal-paste or of the yellow clay called *gōpichandana*.

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Saiva and Vaishnava saints (called *Nāyanārs* and *Alvārs*), the former of whom are sixty-three in number and the latter twelve are also occasionally installed in temples, their images being made either of metal or of stone. The most famous of the former are Appar, Sundarar and Tirujnānasambandar,² whose devotional hymns in praise of the many Saiva shrines of the South are collected together under the name *Dēvāram* and are regarded as scriptures by the devout section of the Saivas. Stories relating to the pious lives of the sixty-three Saiva devotees are recorded in the book called *Periyapurāṇam*, which was written about the end of the thirteenth century of the Christian era. Māṇikkavāsagar, the author of the *Tiru-vāsagam*, is also a saint of great reputation. A beautiful image of his (fig. 161) comes from Tiruvarangulam in the Pudukkōttai State. An illustration from Madura (fig. 162) of Kāraikkāl-Ammai, one of the female Saiva saints counted among the sixty-three, gives a true picture of how devotion and severe penance are expected to reduce the physical body to a skeleton. Like the Saiva scriptures, the hymns of the Vaishnava saints (*Alvārs*) (see Tirumangai-Ālvār, fig. 160 (e) above), are also collected under the name *Nālāyiraprabandham* and form the accredited scriptures of the Tengalai section of Srī-Vaishnavas. The lives of the *Alvārs* are given in the book entitled *Guruparamparāprabhāva*.

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² In the Madras Archæological Survey Report for 1911-12, Plate II, figs. 1-4, are given illustrations of four bronze images which represent Appar, Mānik-kavāsagar, Jnānasambandar and Sundarar (?). *Visvakarma*, Part IV, Plates 62 and 63, illustrate figures of Mānikkavāsagar and Sundaramūrti (Sundarar) from Ceylon. Havell gives a picture of Appar (*Ideals of Indian Art*, Plate XIV). In the

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FIG. 159.—Gauḷīśvara (Gauḍapāda ?) and Saṅkarāchārya ; Tiruvottiyūr.

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FIG. 160 (metal).—(a) Garuda ; (b) Vēdanta-Dēsika ; (c) Vishvaksēna ; (d) Rāmānujāchārya ; (e) Tirumangai-Ālvār ; Nāmakkal.

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Numerous other images are mentioned in the *Āgamas*, *Purāṇas* and similar other works. These are rarely, if at all, depicted in temples. The nine Prajāpatis, the eight Vasus, the seven (or sometimes forty-nine) Maruts, the ten Visvēdēvas, the fourteen Manus, the nine Chiranjīvins, are all personified and described with their weapons and vehicles. Even the sixty-four sciences, the sixty years of the cycle, the months, fortnights, days, constellations, signs of the zodiac, seasons, solstices, oceans, quarters, mountains, rivers, etc., are similarly personified and described. It is not necessary to consider them in any detail.

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The Digambara Jaina images.

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A brief description may now be given of the Digambara Jaina images, of which we have a good number in the districts of Chingleput, South Arcot, South Canara and other parts of the Madras Presidency. It is not possible to enter here into a detailed enquiry of Jaina ritual, symbolism, idology, etc. We

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Tanjore temple built by Rājarāja I at the beginning of the eleventh century A.D., were installed images of Nambi-Ārūranār (i.e., Sundaramūrti), Tirujnānasambandar, Nangai-Paravaiyār (wife of Sundaramūrti), Tirunāvukkaraiyar, Periya-Perumāl and his queen Lōkamahādēviyār, Meypporul-Nāyanār and Siruttonda-Nāyanār. The set of images illustrating the story of the last-mentioned, included Kshētrapāla, Bhairava, Siruttonda-Nambi, Tiruvenkāttu-Nangai (his wife) and Sirāladēvar (his son); see *S.I.I.*, Vol. II. Introduction, p. 39 f. In the temple at Dhārāsuram near Kumbakōnam are pictured scenes from the lives of most of these sixty-three Saiva devotees with labels cut on their pedestals. These belong to the thirteenth century A.D.

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FIG. 161.—Mānikkavāśagar (metal); Tiruvarangulam.

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FIG. 162.—Kāraikkāl-Ammai ; Madura.

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may simply note what the Hindu *Silpa-Sāstras* say about them. The general description of Jaina images, as supplied by these works, is that they must have long arms so as to reach the knees, the mark of *Srivatsa* on the breast (which was found to be peculiar to Vishnu), a calm countenance, broad forehead, head covered with starry rings of hair, hanging earlobes, high nose, delicate limbs and a naked body which looks young and beautiful. Figures of Arhantadēva (i.e., a Jaina Saint) may be made movable or immovable, standing or seated. The material used must be the white, red, yellow, or black stone, crystal or metal. Whether standing or seated the images must have a straight back and in the latter case, the *padmāsana* or the *siddhāsana* posture with the hands crossed over the lap palm in palm, the right being below and the left above. The pedestal of Jaina Saints is always a *simhāsana*, "lion-seat," surmounted by a "crocodile-aureola" (*makara-tōrana*) fixed at the back of the image. Over the aureola are depicted the *kalpa*-tree, the Indras and Dēvas, the demi-gods of Jaina mythology. Sometimes there may also be sages (like Nārada) attending upon the Jina and Yakshas, Yakshis, Vidyādharas, Chakravartins, Nāgēndras and Dikpālakas holding *chauris*, on either side of him. Images used by the Jainas in daily worship at home or in Mathas include the *Panchaparamēshthins* who wear neither clothes nor jewels. At the entrance into the shrines of Jina are placed the gatekeepers Chanda and Mahā-Chanda, as in Hindu temples. Jainas are divided into two main divisions, the Svētāmbaras and the Digambaras. The former are not found in the south while the latter have their important seats at Sravana-Belgola in the Mysore State, Mūdbidri, Kārkal and Yēnūr in South Canara, Tirumalai near Pōlūr in North Arcot, Sittāmūr in South Arcot and various other places. A descriptive account of the images of Digambara Jainas with illustrative plates has been given by Dr. Burgess in his article entitled "Digambara Jaina Iconography" in *Indian Antiquary*, Vol. XXXII, pp. 45 ff. It shows that the gods and goddesses of the Jainas are as numerous and as richly conceived as those of the Hindu Pantheon, and have their prescribed weapons, jewellery, vehicles and symbols.

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In concluding this small treatise on South Indian gods and goddesses, it will not be out of place to dwell briefly upon the pedestals, postures, symbols, weapons and jewellery of images, although most of these have been noticed where they occur incidentally, in the above pages.

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Pedestals. The *Mayamata*, speaking of pedestals in general, says that they are triangular, half-moon-shaped, square or circular (?).¹ Nine pedestals (*pithas*) are mentioned by name, viz., *bhadrapitha*, *vajrapitha*, *padmapitha*, *mahāmbuja* (the big lotus), *srikara*, *pithapadma*, *mahāvajra*, *saumyaka*, and *srikāmya*. Of these, the first and the third are pictured on the accompanying Plate I, as Nos. 13 and 12. No. 16 on the same Plate, perhaps, represents *mahāmbuja*.

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¹ According to the *Prayōgaratna* the nine planets are to be seated on circular, quadrilateral, triangular, arrow-shaped, rectangular, pentagonal, bow-shaped, winnow-shaped and flag-shaped pedestals.

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Postures. The postures, symbols and weapons of images differ according to the image is conceived to be either in a fighting attitude or as bestowing bliss and knowledge on its worshipers. Sometimes, even though the weapons of war are exhibited in the hands of an image, it may yet be considered peaceful if it only shows the positions of the hands known as *abhaya* and *varada*. The posture, *sukhāsana*, in a seated image (Plate I, No. 14) and the posture *samapādasthānaka* in a standing image (Plate II, No. 4) are generally adopted in conferring bliss, just as the position of the hands *abhaya* (Plate IV, No. 7) and *varada* (Plate III, No. 23) indicate the same. The *ālidha*² (Plate II, Nos. 5 and 6) and the *utkatika*³ postures (Plate I, No. 15) denote respectively the heroic attitude in actual fighting and the angry mood that immediately follows it. The *padmāsana* (Plate I, No. 16) and the *yōgāsana* (Plate II, No. 1) postures show either the meditative or the teaching attitude. The position of the legs (Plate II, Nos. 2 and 3) adopted in the case of the standing images of Gōpāla and Natarāja show not only a graceful and artistic attitude but, evidently, also indicate the ecstasy of joy. It may be noted that in all figures of gods and goddesses standing in any position, the ideal beauty is recognized to consist in the three *bhangas* (bends) which according to the *Silpasangraha* are *ābhanga* (slight bend), *samabhanga* (medium bend) and *atibhanga* (great bend). Each of these three bends may be found separately or together in one and the same image.⁴

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² The *ālidha* posture is assumed generally in drawing the bow and discharging the arrow.

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³ There is reason to suppose that the posture known as *virāsana* wherein one leg has to be placed on the other so as to rest on that thigh, is sometimes substituted for *utkatika*. Perhaps they are synonymous.

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⁴ See *South Indian Bronzes* by O. C. Gangoly, p. 401f. The *Silpasangraha* describing a particular form of Rāma states that it consists of three *bhangas* or bends, the face slightly leaning to the right, the middle of the body to the left and the portion below the waist, again, to the right.

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The symbols of the gods and goddesses apart from the weapons which they wield, such as the goad (Plate IV, No. 8), noose (No. 9), disc (Nos. 10 and 10a), shield (No. 12), sword (No. 13), pestle (No. 14), axe (No. 15), trident (Nos. 16 and 16a), thunderbolt (Nos. 20 and 20a), club (Plate III, No. 1), sakti or vēl (No. 2), tanka (No. 3), arrow (No. 4), bow (No. 5), fire (No. 6) and khatvānga (No. 11), are very few. Goddesses, perhaps as a sign of beauty, hold in their hands a lotus-bud (Plate IV, No. 18 and Plate I, No. 3), a mirror (Plate III, No. 8) or a parrot perching on the back of the palm (Plate IV, No. 19). The rosary (Plate IV, Nos. 1 and 2), the water-pot (Nos. 3 and 4), the book (No. 5), the position of the fingers known as chinmudrā (Plate III, No. 16) and jñānamudrā (No. 14) denote meditation, purity and knowledge. The conch of Vishnu (Plate IV, No. 11 and Plate I, No. 4a), the kettle-drum dhakkā of Siva (Plate III, No. 12 and Plate IV, No. 24) and the bell in the hands of some gods and goddesses (Plate III, No. 7) may be taken as equipments for fight, though not as actual weapons, offensive or defensive. The deer held by Siva as a trophy on the occasion when he destroyed the sacrifice of his father-in-law Daksha (Plate IV, No. 17), the serpent (Plate I, No. 46) and the kapāla (Plate III, No. 21 and Plate IV, No. 23a) may be considered only as symbols specially distinguishing him from the other gods. The same has to be said of the kukkuta “cock” (Plate III, No. 3a) of Skanda, of the broken tusk¹ (Plate IV, No. 21) of Vināyaka and of the flag (No. 22) of Vāyu, “the god of winds.”

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¹ For the story of the broken tusk with which Vināyaka (Ganapati) is stated to have written the Mahābhārata, see above, p. 176.

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Some of the purely artistic positions of the hand are: the simhakarna (Plate I, No. 1), the kataka (Plate IV, No. 4a), the katiga “hand resting on the waist” (Plate IV, No. 6), the position in which the hand hangs down freely “like the tail of a cow” (Plate I, No. 2), the placing of the kūrpara by Siva on the head of the bull (Plate III, No. 9), the gajahasta of Natarāja (No. 19) and the position in which Siva as Bhikshātana touches the mouth of the antelope (Plate III, No. 17).² Some other significant positions of the hand are those known as sūchi “the pointing finger” (Plate III, No. 13 and Plate IV, No. 23), tarjani “the threatening finger” (Plate III, Nos. 18 and 26) and the vismaya “wonder” (Plate III, Nos. 15 and 22 and Plate I, No. 4). The three latter are generally found in the figures of Siva and of guardian deities.

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² This last position is called simhakarna. In images of Tripurāntakamūrti, the arrow is held by one of the right hands which is, again, stated to be in the simhakarna pose.

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Jewellery, crowns, etc.

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The jewellery of images corresponds in most cases to the jewels of the present day worn by men as well as by women. Most of these have been mentioned in the above pages in the general descriptions of gods and goddesses. It has only to be noted that a very large number of them, such as necklaces, breast-plates, girdles, armlets, bracelets, wristlets, anklets, arm-rings, finger-rings, and toe-rings, made of gold and set with various gems,¹ are mentioned in the Tanjore inscriptions as having been presented to the images in the Brihadīśvara temple, by the great Chōla king Rājarāja I, in the first quarter of the eleventh century A.D. The different fashions of making up the hair seem to have also occupied the attention of Indian artists. The *jaṭās* (matted hair) of Siva, arranged generally in the form known as *jaṭāmakuta* (Plate I, No. 8), show other varieties such as *jaṭāmaṇḍala* (Plate II, No. 6), *jaṭābhāra* (No. 9) and *jaṭābandha* (No. 7). The terrible form of Siva, known as Pāsupatamūrti, has the *jaṭāmakuta* with flames of fire surrounding it (Plate I, No. 11). Naṭarāja’s *jaṭās*, whether flying in the air or tied up in a knot have a bunch of peacock’s feathers decorating them (Plate I, No. 5). Vishnu has generally a *kirīṭamakuta*, i.e., a crown (Plate I, No. 7). The goddesses either wear the crown called *karaṇḍamakuta* (Plate II, No. 8)² or have their hair parted in the middle like the Indian women of to-day. In figures of Jyēshthā, is seen a peculiar fashion of dressing the hair known as *vāsikābandha* (Plate I, No. 10). Other peculiar head-dresses, whose names are not known, also occur occasionally (see, e.g., Plate I, No. 9).

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¹ See above p. 8, fig. 4. One of the peculiar jewels worn by images of Siva such as Naṭarāja, Dakshināmūrti, Bhikshātana, Kankāla, etc., is the *bhringipāda* (Plate II, Nos. 3 and 4). It may be noted that the priestly class among Lingāyatas, called Jangams, wear such a jewel when they go out for receiving doles.

Linked texts (18)

Kālikāpurāṇa — Sanskrit
Matsyapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Mānasāra — Sanskrit
பெரிய புராணம் — Cēkkiḻār, Tamil
Mayamata — Maya, Sanskrit
திருவாசகம் — Māṇikkavācakar, Tamil
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Veda — Sanskrit
Śvetāmbara Āgama — Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Avesta — Avestan
Purāṇa — Sanskrit
South Indian Inscriptions
Brihadishwara Temple
Lēpākshi
Mahabalipuram
Rameswaram
Viśvakarmaśilpa — Viśvakarman, Sanskrit
Prayogaratna — Nārāyaṇabhaṭṭa 1540, Sanskrit

South-Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses c12: Chapter VII. Miscellaneous Deities

Contents

Chapter VII. Miscellaneous Deities

I

II

Linked texts (18)