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South-Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses c9.s4: V

South-Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses c9.s4

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V

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Images answering to the two names Natarāja and Sabhāpati, in the Hindu Pantheon, are identical in design. Natarāja (the prince of dancers) is the well-known dancing form of god Siva. It has four arms and a body besmeared with ashes. The back arm on the right side holds the kettle-drum (udukkai, as it is called in Tamil) while the other presents the raised palm of protection (abhaya). Of the pair on the left, the upper holds a fire-pot and the lower is bent round FIG. 47.— Panchamukha-linga ; Tiruvānaikkāval.

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¹ According to Hēmādri these may be substituted by the club and the trident.

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across the breast to the right side, its fingers gracefully pointing below, towards the left leg which is raised in a dancing posture. The position of this hand is known as gaja-hasta, “the elephant-trunk.” The ecstatic and violent nature of the dance, described as Ānanda-tāndava in the sequel, whirling quickly round on one leg, placed on the back of the demon Musalagan or Apasmāra¹, is indicated by the matted hair (jatā) stretching out on both sides of the head in wavy lines one above the other and by the cloth, partly tied round the waist and partly thrown over the left shoulder, also flying in the air (fig. 48). The right hand which shows the abhaya has on its wrist a serpent, which is the usual ornament of Siva and may have I, 3, 5 or 7 hoods. Another serpent, in the hand of the demon below, is explained by Mr. Havell (Ideals of Indian Art, p. 79) to be the corresponding wrist ornament on the left arm which had dropped down in the dance. We are told in the Kāsyapa-Silpa of the Amsumat-Tantra that a serpent with raised hood is to be shown playing near Apasmāra on his left side, the right hand of the demon pointing towards it (vyāla-mudrā?). The head of Siva wears peacock’s feathers, or an ornament fashioned like them, which is a special characteristic of the image. The aureola (prabhā), which every metallic image necessarily has, is, in this case, somewhat peculiar and significant, being surmounted all round with flames of fire similar to the one which is held in the pot or cup in one of the two left arms of the image.² The pedestal on which the figure rests is a double lotus flower placed back to back. Sometimes the jatās are not spread out but are tied and made up in the form of jatāmakuta (fig. 49).

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¹ Rai Bahadur V. Venkayya describes him s a hideous malignant dwarf, who sprang from the sacrificial fire of the rishis of the Dārukāvana forest and was sub-dued by Siva by being pressed under the tip of his foot (S.I.I. Vol. II, Introduc-tion, p. 33, footnote). Perhaps he is the personification of the disease epilepsy wherein the victim is enveloped in complete mental darkness.

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² The Silparatna remarks that the aureola of Natarāja represents the ravi-mandala or ‘the sun’s disc.” This perhaps accounts for the flaming rays proceed-ing from the aureola.

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Siva is said to dance in the evening in the presence of the goddess Pārvatī in order to relieve the sufferings of the dēvas. The dance of Natarāja is believed to symbolize the action of cosmic energy in creating, preserving and destroying the visible universe. The Purānas say that during these dances the whole congregation of gods, demigods and saints present themselves to render their obeisance to Siva. Hence the name Sabhāpati, “the lord of the assembly" of gods.¹ The asterism Ārdrā occurring in the bright half of the solar month Mārgali (December-January) is sacred to Natarāja. All Siva temples celebrate a festival on that occasion by taking out in procession miniature representations of Natarāja or, where such do not exist, the chief processional image of Siva. In Chidambaram, of course, where the worship of Natarāja is the most prominent and where the Sabhā-mandapa (assembly hall) is covered with gold plate, the festival is the grandest held in the year.

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¹ The Kāraṇāgama has the following about Sabhāpati:— "On the top of the Kailāsa mountain, in front of the goddess Gauri (Pārvatī) who is seated on a jewelled throne, Siva with the crescent on his head dances in the evenings. All the devas attend the dance; Brahmā plays on cymbals; Hari (Vishnu), on a pataha; Bhāratī (Sarasvatī), on the lute; the Sun and Moon, on flutes; Tumburu and Nārada supply vocal music; and Nandi and Kumāra (Skanda) beat drums." The Mayamata also mentions other gods and goddesses in the congregation, such as Vighnēsa (Vināyaka), Kālī and the Seven Mothers. It adds that Siva then performs the dance called Bhujangatrāsita with the serpent Karkōtaka on him; see Burgess's Elura Cave Temples, Plate XLIII, fig. 5.

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FIG. 48.—Natarāja (metal); Panchanadakkulam. D.85.

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FIG. 49. — Natarāja (metal) ; Rāmēsvaram.

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Two main forms of dancing Siva may be distinguished: one with the raised leg as shown in the illustrations given above and the other with the same lifted up higher, to the level of the head. The latter is called Ūrdhva-tāndava—a dance which is locally believed to have been first performed by Siva at Tiruvālangādu near Arkōnam. The origin of this form of dance is as follows. There was once a dispute between Siva and his consort Kālī as to who was better in the art of dancing. Siva danced many a dance and Kālī successfully followed him; till at last, in order to suppress her pride, Siva lifted up one of his legs to the level of his crown and danced on. Kālī was too modest to imitate Siva in this performance and she accepted the superiority of Siva (fig. 50). Images of Natarāja are sometimes also seen with a small antelope prancing on his left side near the foot, the Gangā (Ganges) and the crescent decorating the head,² the sages Patanjali (with the serpent-body, fig. 51) and Vyāghrapāda (with tiger's feet, fig. 52) worshipping on either side and the goddess Pārvatī standing on the left.

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² The description of the image of Ādavallān (i.e., "the expert dancer," Natarāja) given in the Tanjore Inscriptions, mentions "four arms, nine braids of hair (jatā), the goddess Gangā-bhattārakī on the braided hair and seven flower garlands. The goddess Umāparamēsvari who formed a part of the group was standing on a separate pedestal." Another image of a similar description in the same temple was Tanjai-Alagar with whom was connected also the figure of a Ganapati. Of the sages Patanjali and Vyāghrapāda who usually accompany the dancing image of Natarāja, the Tanjore Inscriptions describe the former as a solid image which measured "three-quarters and one-eighth (of a mulam) in height from the tail to the hoods (phana). It had five hoods; one face in the midst of these hoods, one crown (makuta), two divine arms, above the navel, a human body, and below the navel three coils"; (S.I.I., Vol. II, Introduction,

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FIG. 50.--Ūrdhva-tāndava; Tirappanandāl.

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ANANDA-TĀNDAVA. The Āgamas speak of seven dancing postures of Siva. The first, called Ānanda-tāndava or the joyous dance, has been described above.

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SANDHYĀ-TĀNDAVA. The second is his evening dance Sandhyā-tāndava.¹ In this form the demon Apasmāra is absent and the symbols in the two left arms are the peacock-feathers and the pose of wonder called vismaya.

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¹ According to the Silpasangraha and the Mayamata, the dance is performed under the vata or the banyan tree.

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UMĀ-TĀNDAVA. The third is the Umā-tāndava, i.e., dance with his consort Umā. In this Siva has two more arms, the additional right hand holding the trident (trisūla) and the three left hands exhibiting the skull, vismaya, and the gaja-hasta. The left leg is placed on Apasmāra and the right leg is stretched towards the left, and the goddess Umā stands on the left side.

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GAURĪ-TĀNDAVA. The fourth, Gaurī-tāndava, is almost similar to the first, but in one of the left hands of the god is held a serpent. Nandi stands on the right side and Gaurī (Pārvatī) is on the left.²

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² This same dance is described in the Mayamata as Bhujangalalita in which by quick changes in the position of the legs, the fire in the hand is blown into a blaze, and the braided locks are spread out into five, seven or nine. On the left side stands Vishnu in place of Gaurī, and on the right Nandi.

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KĀLIKĀ-TĀNDAVA. In the fifth form, called Kālikā-tāndava, the god has only two eyes, but eight arms. Three of the right arms hold the trident, noose and kettle-drum and the corresponding left hold the skull, fire-pot and the bell; the two remaining arms exhibit the abhaya on the right and gaja-hasta on the left (fig. 53).³

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³ In the illustrations the weapons and symbols are seen just as they are mentioned in the Āgamas. The position of the legs in the one, and the abhaya and the gaja-hasta poses in the other, are, however, reversed.

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TRIPURA-TĀNDAVA. The dance of Siva, with sixteen arms and as many symbols, having Gaurī and Skanda on the left and right sides respectively,⁴ receives the name Tripura-tāndava.

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⁴ The Silparatna says that Skanda stands on the same side as Gaurī holding her by the hand, and shows fear, love and wonder in his face.

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SAMHĀRA-TĀNDAVA. The last dance called Samhāra-tāndava "the death-dance" shows the god with three eyes and eight arms. The left leg is placed on Apasmāra and the right leg is raised. In the right

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p. 33). This description closely agrees with the figure of Patanjali on the eastern gōpura of the Natarāja temple at Chidambaram. On the same gōpura is the image of Vyāghrapāda in which the sage is represented as having tiger's claws on both his hands and feet. The sage is carrying on his right shoulder a hook and a flower basket.

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FIG. 51. — Patanjali ; Chidambaram.

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FIG. 52.—Vyāghrapāda ; Chidambaram.

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FIG. 53.—Kālikā-tāndava (metal); Nallūr.

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hands are seen the *abhaya*, trident, noose and the kettle-drum; the left hands exhibit the skull and the fire-pot and the postures *vismaya* and *gaja-hasta*. On the right and left sides respectively are Nandi and Gaurī.

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Other *Agamas* again, refer to 108 dancing forms of Siva nine of which are said to be celebrated. Of these latter the only one that deserves to be noted is that in which the god has his right leg raised straight up so as to reach the top of the crown (*ushnisha*). Perhaps, this is the *Ūrdhva-tāndava*, described already. He may have four, eight or sixteen arms.

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No account of Natarāja could be complete without a short history of Chidambaram and its temple. Tradition has it that years ago a king from the north, called Simhavarman, came south on a pilgrimage. All this part of the country was then one huge forest. The king happened to bathe in a well, and immediately found himself transformed into a bright golden figure. He assumed the name Hiranyavarman "the gold-armoured" on that account and covered with gold the Siva temple which he discovered near that well. It is stated that before him the sages Patanjali and Vyāghrapāda had worshipped there. Simhavarman and Hiranyavarman are Pallava names and denote that the origin of the temple may be roughly traced to that period. Historically, it was the Chōla king Parāntaka I, surnamed Vīra-Chōla and Vīra-Nārāyana (A.D. 907 to about 951) who covered the Chidambaram temple with gold, perhaps for the first time. Successive Chōla kings, after him, are known to have added to the grandeur of it¹. A later Pallava chief of the thirteenth century A.D. called Perunjingadēva boasts of having conquered the four quarters and utilized the booty secured, in decorating the eastern *gōpura* of the Chidambaram temple which he had himself constructed.² The great Vijayanagara king Krishnadēvarāya of the sixteenth century A.D. built the north *gōpura* of the same temple after his victorious return from a campaign in the north. It is well known that as a sacred place of pilgrimage Chidambaram is intimately connected with the Saiva saint Mānikyavāchaka (Mānikkavāsagar), the Pariah saint Nandanār—both of whom attained their salvation there—and with the Saiva philosopher and scholar Appaya-Dīkshita who was much devoted to that temple. The place is mentioned in the Saiva hymns of the Dēvāram, in which it is called Tillai. The 3,000 Brāhmana families of Tillai (which may have once lived there but have at present dwindled down to a few hundreds) claim Siva to be one of them and worship Natarāja as their family deity.

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¹ The devotion of Rājarāja I to the god at Chidambaram and the rich presents which he must have made to the temple there, evidently earned for him the titles Srī-Rājarāja and Sivapādasēkhara; Rai Bahadur Venkayya thinks that Rājarāja built at Tanjore the big temple of Rājarājēsvara (i.e., Brihadīsvara) in order to commemorate the conferring of these titles. He consecrated therein the god Siva and called him Ādavallān, i.e., the expert dancer, after the famous Natarāja of Chidambaram.

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² It is from this *gōpura* that the best illustrations are secured. The *gōpura* is very rich in sculptures and has various forms of Siva and his attendant gods. In this *gōpura* are also found illustrations of the 108 postures in dancing, mentioned in the *Bhāratīya-Nātyasāstra* (vide Madras Epigraphical Report for 1913-14, Plates I to IV). They are appropriately meant to be connected with Natarāja the king of dancers.

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The Āgamas mention, as already stated,¹ twenty-five sportive forms (līlā-mūrtis) of Siva, most of which are usually met with in South-Indian temples. One of the more important of these is Dakshināmūrti. In Chōla temples this image generally occupies a niche in the south wall of the central shrine. Dakshināmūrti or Dharma-Vyākhyānamūrti is the form of Siva engaged in yōga or philosophic contemplation. Once upon a time Daksha, the father-in-law of Siva, insulted him and his consort Umā, by not inviting them to a sacrifice which he was performing. Umā nevertheless went uninvited to her father's house, but being grossly neglected jumped into the sacrificial fire-pit and destroyed herself. Siva was furious; he created out of a lock of his hair the terrible Vīrabhadra (see below, p. 155) who destroyed Daksha. Siva then retired to a forest with the resolve not to marry again and sat underneath a banyan tree deeply engaged in meditation. The gods were much concerned; for it meant that the world would loose the benefit of Siva's direct intervention in its affairs. They accordingly induced Kāma,² the god of love, to stir up once again in the mind of Siva the dormant embers of love. The fool-hardy Kāma incautiously approached the god engaged in meditation and shot his flowery arrows at him and hit him. Siva then opened his eye of fire and looked straight at Kāma, when lo! he was at once reduced to a heap of ashes.³ Still Kāma had succeeded. For, soon afterwards Siva gave up his

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¹ Above, p. 76, footnote 1.

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² Described above, p. 62.

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³ This incident has given rise to the recognition of another sportive form of Siva called Kāmāri or Kāmadahanamūrti. The scene is depicted on one of the pillars of an unfinished mandapa near the tank in the Ēkāmrēśvara temple at Conjeeveram. According to the Kāraṇāgama, Kāmadahanamūrti has four arms in which are seen the abhaya, varada, a deer and the tanka. He is seated on a lotus pedestal and is fierce in appearance.

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DAKSHINĀ MŪRTI.

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penance and married once again Umā, who had now incarnated as Pārvatī, the beautiful daughter of Himavat (the Himalayas). This is the story of Dakshināmūrti.¹ He is always conceived to be a youthful teacher, seated beneath a banyan tree, teaching aged pupils and removing their doubts by his very silence.

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¹ Havell, Ideals of Indian Art, p. 83f.

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The general posture of the images of Dakshināmūrti show him with his right leg bent vertically at the knee and placed on the body of the dark demon Apasmāra² and the left leg bent across so as to rest upon the right thigh. He has a calm countenance, indicative of perfect peace within. His matted locks are either dishevelled or are formed into a jatāmakuta tied together by a serpent (fig. 54). The body is besmeared with ashes and all the usual ornaments of Siva decorate him. The sages Nārada, Jamadagni, Vasistha and Bhrigu sit at his feet on the right side, receiving instruction, while Bharadvāja, Saunaka, Agastya and Bhārgava sit on the left. The bull-vehicle of the god, the denizens of the forest, Kinnaras and other demi-gods are also seen on the Kailāsa mountain on which the god is seated.³ His right fore-arm points the jnāna-mudrā (the pose conveying philosophical knowledge) and the back arm holds the rosary (or, the serpent); the left fore-arm shows the boon-conferring (varada) attitude or is sometimes freely stretched, the back of the palm resting in either case on the left knee. Some illustrations show a book in the place of the varada posture. The remaining hand on the left side holds the fire-pot, the deer, the kettle-drum or the rosary. When Dakshināmūrti holds in his fore-arms the lute (vinā) and changes the posture of his left leg—apparently for keeping the vinā in position—he is called Vīnādhara-Dakshināmūrti (fig. 55). Jnānamūrti is another form of the same god in which the symbol jnāna-mudrā of the right fore-arm is raised close to the heart with the palm of the hand turned inwards. The name Yōgamūrti (or Yōga-Dakshināmūrti) is applied when the legs crossing each other from the root of the thigh are held in position by the belt yōgapatta, passing round the waist and the

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² The Silpasangraha mentions a serpent playing by the side of Apasmāra.

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³ The description of Dakshināmūrti given in the Tanjore inscriptions is very interesting and instructive. They say that the mountain on which the god is seated "had two peaks on which there were two Kinnaras and two Kinnaris. Under the foot of the god was Musalagan. On the mountain were four rishis, a snake, two Karnaprāvritas (i.e., devotees of Siva (?) mentioned in the Rāmāyana, who had ear-lobes with holes big enough to allow their hands to be passed through in the act of worshipping) and a tiger. A banyan tree was also on the mountain and had nine main branches and forty-two minor ones. A wallet was suspended from the tree and a bunch of peacock's feathers was one of the accompaniments of the god"; S.I.I., Vol. II, Introduction, p. 33.

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VĪNĀDHARA-DAKSHINĀ-MŪRTI, JNĀNAMŪRTI and YŌGA-MŪRTI.

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FIG. 54.—Dakshināmūrti; Āvūr.

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FIG. 55.—Vīṇādhara-Dakṣiṇāmūrti ; Chidambaram.

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fore-legs, a little below the knee. The front arms are in this case, stretched out and rest freely on the knees, while the back arms hold the rosary and the water pot. The illustration (fig. 56) differs, however, in the symbols. In this, the upper hands hold the water-pot and the antelope and the lower hands the rosary (with *jñāna-mudrā*) and the book. A fine old picture (fig. 57) coming from Tiruvengavāsal (Puduk-kōttai State) shows Dakshināmūrti in a different position and with different symbols.

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Lingōdbhava “the linga-manifestation,” is a familiar figure of Siva seen on the west wall of the central shrine of Siva temples built in Chōla times. As his name implies, he is represented within a huge linga, the portion of the feet below the ankles being hidden in the linga. Brahmā in the form of a swan is seen soaring up on the left side of Siva; while, on the right side, Vishnu is delving below into the depths of the earth in the form of a boar.¹ Also these gods (i.e., Brahmā and Vishnu) in their true glory stand on either side of Siva with folded hands. The figure emanating from the middle of the linga (fig. 58) has four hands like Chandrasēkhara (described below) and holds in its back arms the axe and the antelope and in the front hands, the *abhaya* and the *varada* postures. In the illustration given, the left hand is, however, seen resting freely on the waist. In the Tanjore inscriptions, Lingōdbhava is mentioned by the name Lingapurānadēva, i.e., the god of the Linga-Purāna which describes the greatness of the linga. The story runs that a dispute arose between Brahmā and Vishnu as to who is the greater of the two. Siva told them that whoever first saw the top or the bottom of his own fiery linga-form ² and came back to report, he would be considered the greater. Brahmā soared on his swan to see the top of the Siva-linga, while Vishnu as a boar dug down and down to see its bottom. Ages passed away and neither came to his goal. At last Brahmā saw one *kētaki* flower coming down. It had fallen from Siva’s head ages ago. Brahmā suborned it to give false evidence and then came back and uttered a lie, saying that he had seen the top of the linga, citing the *kētaki* flower as his witness. Siva knew the lie and cursed Brahmā that he should thenceforward go without any worship in temples. Brahmā had five heads at this time.

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¹ The swan and the boar are in some pictures found to be half-man and half-animal.

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² On the east main *gōpura* of the Chidambaram temple is an image of Lingōdbhava surrounded by flames of fire.

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FIG. 56.—Yōga-Dakshināmūrti ; Conjeeveram.

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FIG. 57.—Dakshināmūrti; Tiruvengavāsal.

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FIG. 58.—Lingōdbhava ; Tanjore.

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Siva also cut off the head which uttered the lie.¹ The flower ketaki too, which abetted the crime, was excluded from the flowers dear to Siva. On an apology being offered, the latter was however accepted, as a special case, during the worship on the night of the Sivarātri festival which falls on the fourteenth day of the dark half of Māgha (January-February) in each year and is held sacred in honour of the linga-manifestation of Siva.

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¹ The Kāraṇāgama mentions a sportive form of Siva cutting off one of the heads of Brahmā. The image is stated to have four arms holding the thunderbolt and the axe in the right hand and the trident and Brahmā's skull in the left.

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Perhaps, images called Ēkapādamūrti or Ēkapāda-ĒKAPADA Trimūrti, in which the gods Brahmā and Vishnu, with folded MŪRTI. hands and characteristic symbols, are represented as proceeding out of the body of Siva at his waist as in the Tiruvottiyūr image (fig. 59) or from behind his knee as in the image from Tiruvānaikkāval (fig. 60) are either developments of Lingōdbhava wherein the superiority of Siva over the two other members of the Hindu Triad was established, or an invention of the Indian sculptor in which is symbolized the underlying unity of the three gods.² The Kāraṇāgama mentions Ēkapāda mūrti as one of the sportive forms of Siva and describes him as having one foot, three eyes and four arms in which are seen the tanka and deer and the varada and the abhaya postures. On the right and left sides of Siva, almost touching his shoulders, are Brahmā and Vishnu holding their symbolical weapons in two hands and worshipping Siva with the other two.

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² Accordingly, we sometimes find Vishnu occupying the central place. On p. 73 above, footnote 1, it was noted that the goddess Gāyatrī was absorbed into the centre of the linga while Brahmā and Vishnu entered the sides of it.

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The single foot which is the characteristic feature of these figures, is, in the case of the Tiruvānaikkāval image, placed on the back of the bull. It is also seen the vehicle of Brahmā, viz., the swan, at the right bottom and, at the corresponding left bottom, the standing Garuda vehicle of Vishnu and a sage—perhaps Nārada. Apparently Ēkapādamūrti has to be connected with Ajaikapād, a name given in the Rig-Vēda to one of the Ēkadasa-Rudras.³

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³ See Nagendra Natha Vasu's Mayūrabhanja, Introduction, p. xxxi.

Cites (9)