Ajanta: The Colour and Monochrome Reproductions of the Ajanta Frescoes Based on Photography v4.c16.s18: The Sutasoma Jātaka, or the Story of the Pious King of Indraprastha Prevailing Upon Saudāsa the King of Benares to Give Up Cannibalism

Ajanta: The Colour and Monochrome Reproductions of the Ajanta Frescoes Based on Photography v4.c16.s18

Language: English

The Sutasoma Jātaka, or the Story of the Pious King of Indraprastha Prevailing Upon Saudāsa the King of Benares to Give Up Cannibalism

*The several episodes of the story are painted on the wall of the back corridor, to the left of the antechamber, and are continued on the bend of the wall towards the left, above the cell-door, in Cave XVII.*

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THE painting was identified for the first time in 1920 by Foucher, who got the clue from the incident that a lioness was enamoured of the beauty of a prince whom she found sleeping under a tree, and by licking the soles of his feet became pregnant. The offspring of this extraordinary love, when born, was reared and trained as a prince, but ultimately, through his natural predilections, turned out to be a cannibal. In the *Jātaka*, however, a different version of the cannibalistic tendencies of the prince is given, that is, ‘as a yakkha in the birth immediately preceding this, he had eaten quantities of human flesh, and so it was agreeable to his taste’. The story delineated on the rock-wall at Ajanta is no doubt more romantic in feeling, and the artist, in his love for detail, has spread it over several scenes, using his imagination and skill to the full.

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To begin the story as it is painted, one should look at the scene between cell-doors 1 and 2, where the King of Benares is shown going out for a hunt. The gate of the palace from which the king has emerged with his retinue is shown at the extreme right side of the fresco. He is accompanied by two other princes, one of whom is riding on a green (steel-grey) horse and the other on a bay animal. The king himself is in front and his steed is of a milk-white colour. An attendant is holding an umbrella over his head. The drawing of the legs of the king's horse shows that the animal is going at a gallop. The bay and the steel-grey horses are bedecked with ornaments and their harness is also of a rich quality, being of white and black leather, with the colours arranged alternately. The bay horse has an ornament on his breast from which bells and crescents are shown hanging. The steel-grey horse has a decorative band round his forehead. There are five footmen to the right of the king's horse, three of whom hold spears. Two more footmen are to be seen on the left who are armed with swords and shields. The artist has given different casts of feature to these footmen; for instance, notice the nose and the cut of the face of the footman in front, to the left of the king. He is unmistakably an aboriginal.

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¹ *Jātaka*, v, 248. Also see *Jātaka-mālā*, No. 31, and *Bhadrakalpāvadāna*, No. 34.

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In front of the party are shown three hunters with a pack of dogs, five of whom have been slipped from their leashes to follow a herd of deer. The leashes with hooks may be noticed in the hands of the hunters. The figures of the dogs are painted in a very poor style, particularly when compared with the figures of the horses and the deer. The reason is that the representation of horses and deer had become easy for the artist by long practice, whereas the dog was not a popular animal to draw, and, further, the variety of feature resulting from differences of breed perhaps made it difficult to decide on a simple appropriate style typical of this beast.

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The king in pursuing the deer has become separated from his retinue and has entered a forest abounding in wild animals. The drawing of the trees, although conventional to a degree, is nevertheless artistic, and the trunks, the leaves, and the flowers all combine to present a delightful picture. The nimble movement of the deer and the wild stare of their eyes when they scent danger is effectively shown (Plate XXVIII a). A little above the deer, which are scattered in different directions, some foxes, a wild cat, and also a jackal may be noticed. Higher still, two panthers are shown lurking amidst the ledges of the hill, and, probably at the sight of one of them, a stag has been struck with fear and has opened his mouth as if to bay. The head of the stag is a little damaged, but the representation of his body exhibits a close study of the contours of this animal and marvellous skill in drawing it so faithfully.

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The forest-scene continues above, but the artist, to separate the events enacted so far from those which are to follow, has cleverly inserted a belt of hills in the painting so that the onlooker may easily understand that a fresh episode is to begin there. The king, being exhausted by fatigue, has lain down under a tree and fallen asleep. His sword and belt may be seen by his side. A lioness has approached the king with signs of affection and is licking the soles of his feet. The king's horse is watching the event in wild terror. The figure of the horse is a masterpiece of drawing, representing faithfully the fright of the horse by its raised neck, expanded nostrils, and exposed teeth (Plate XXX a).

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A little above there is another scene, again separated from the last by a belt of hills. Here the king is shown sitting on a stone in a mood indicating lassitude. He has stretched out his right arm for support to the stone on which he is sitting and with the fingers of his other hand has made a gesture which reveals the perplexity of his mind at the situation. The lioness is in front of him, but her position here again indicates her affection for him and her desire for marital union. She has turned her neck and is looking eagerly towards the king. Amidst the forest the artist has laid out a water-pool and covered its surface with lotus-flowers. The variety in the shapes of the leaves of the trees depicted in this scene and the elegance of the flowers show the artist's delight in the beauty of Nature.

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The next scene (Plate XXXV a-b) represents the lioness proceeding to the king's palace after passing through a bazaar. At the left side of the fresco a gate may be seen through which the lioness has evidently entered the bazaar.¹ There are four men and two boys near the gate; only one of them is armed with a sword and shield,² and the others, including the boys, are pedestrians, and are looking with curiosity at the lioness. She is shown walking proudly in the middle of the road. The man nearest the gate has a child on his shoulders who is also looking at the lioness with wonder. For the arrival of the lioness special preparations seem to have been made, for the path is strewn with flowers and there is a line of flags on one side of the road. The figures painted at the left side of the bazaar represent six men and four women. The features of all of them are Dravidian, which shows that the people of this stock constituted the major portion of the population of the Deccan at that time. Both men and women have bedecked their hair with flowers, but the coiffure of the ladies is very elaborate and artistic. The fourth lady from the right side has a child with her. The gestures made by both men and women indicate their astonishment at the sight of the lioness, who is carrying a child on her back. These men and women are apparently watching the lioness from the roofs of their houses, because the leaves of the areca-nut and other trees at their back show that they are quite high above the ground.

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¹ On the wall of the gateway the figure of a monkey is painted.

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² The sword is straight and of a large size (Plate XXXV a).

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On the other side of the road the painter has shown a row of shops with empty spaces between them, indicating the openings of narrow lanes upon the road. From these openings boys, girls, and grown-up people are watching the scene. In the shops half-clad tradesmen with unkempt hair and coarse features are visible. They have round and flat vessels in front and around them, in which articles for sale are shown. In front of the lioness, on the right side of the reproduction (Plate XXXV a), is a tall male figure with a long staff in his hand. He is probably the usher of the court, but the gesture made by him with the fingers of his right hand suggests surprise at the approach of the lioness with the child.

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The next scene represents the royal court; the king is sitting on the throne with a child in his lap and the lioness stands in front of him. Behind the lioness, towards the left, are two figures, one probably representing the minister, who is seated on a low chair, and the other an attendant dressed in a white coat. The latter has a brown complexion. There are two female chaurī-bearers one on each side of the throne, and there is also a maidservant immediately behind the king's throne, holding a pot of milk which she has brought to feed the child. Close to the chaurī-bearer, on the left side of the king, two ladies may also be noticed who are looking curiously at the lioness and the child.

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Below the courtroom, in the foreground, is a stalwart figure dressed in white and holding a sword under his left arm. He is probably the chief guard of the royal court. To his left there are three more guards, all armed with shields and long swords. The casts of the features of these three figures differ; one appears to be a Dravidian, another a Maratha, and the third an Oriya. The Maratha has a beard and a moustache, while his hair is dressed up like that of a yogī. The complexions of these guards also vary; one is fair, another brownish, and the third greenish (dark). To the left of the guard is a priest (?) sitting on a cushion placed on the floor. There are two other figures, sitting on the ground to the right of the guards. The heads of these figures are well preserved and the high lights placed on their faces show with advantage the salient features of each. One of them, who is of a dark complexion and is dressed in white, holds in his lap a round metal box with chased work.

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The fresco has become black and indistinct, particularly in its upper part, but the poses and arrangement of the different figures and the general effect of the entire scene exhibit the artist's ingenuity and clever craftsmanship.

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The name of the King of Benares, the hero of the lioness's romance, was Saudāsa, and the child born of this extraordinary love-adventure was named Saudāsa. The artist of Ajanta has depicted the next incident of the life-story of the prince Saudāsa by showing him learning his three Rs, with another boy of his age, from a teacher attached to the palace-staff. The fresco is damaged and the figure of the teacher which was at the right end of a pillared room, has almost disappeared, only his feet being visible (Plate XXXVII a). The figure of Saudāsa behind a pillar is intact, and he holds in his lap a wooden tablet on which he is writing his lessons. The representation of the companion of Saudāsa is damaged in its upper part, but the lower part is fully preserved, and the boy, like Saudāsa, also holds a wooden tablet in his lap. The boys were perhaps taught to play on musical instruments as well, or the teacher himself was fond of playing on a vīṇā, because that instrument is seen hung on the wall between two pillars, a little above the head of Saudāsa. The vīṇā is represented in a more or less perfect form, with six keys to adjust the six wires and a bridge in the middle of its oval-shaped bowl, so that the wires should not stick to the wooden frame of the instrument (Plate XXXVII a).

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To the left of this scene is another representing the prince Saudāsa practising the throwing of the javelin. A dark boy holding several javelins is sitting on the ground near the prince to give him another weapon when he has thrown the one in his hand. The target, representing two human skulls, is attached to a frame placed below a banana-tree. Two javelins have hit the target (Plate XXXVII a). The method of throwing the weapon and the pose of the body to be adopted in practising it are interesting. Behind the prince is a heavy greenish (dark) figure sitting on a chair. He is probably the teacher of military exercises. There are two attendants in the background, one of whom holds a tray of refreshments for the prince.

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The idea that Saudāsa has grown up and become fit to take up the reins of government from his father is shown by the Abhiṣeka ceremony which is performed at the time of the enthronement of a prince. A spacious shāmiyāna (rectangular tent) has been set up for the ceremony in the gardens of the palace. The lofty bamboo props and the triangular decorative fringe of the shāmiyāna may interest students of royal paraphernalia in ancient times. Two attendants are pouring consecrated water on the head of Saudāsa, who is seated on a chair. The hair of the attendant on the left is adorned with a large flower. Near this attendant is a maidservant, who holds a fly-whisk in her hand. There are two more attendants behind the chair of Saudāsa, but as the fresco is very dark there it cannot be seen clearly whether they hold fly-whisks or trays of offerings in their hands. On the right side, however, two figures are clear, one representing a woman, who holds a large lily-flower in her right hand and a tray of fruit (?) on the palm of her left hand, which she is holding up. A little lower, on the same side, is a dwarf, who has brought flowers arranged in a tray to offer Saudāsa on this auspicious occasion. On the corresponding side, to the left of Saudāsa’s chair, there are figures of dwarfs and men and women who have brought similar offerings for him. The features of many figures represented in this scene will interest students of Indian racial types, since inter-racial marriage had not, perhaps, by that time (fifth century A.D.) continued long enough to efface the characteristic features of the original stocks.

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According to the *Jātaka* Saudāsa was fond of eating meat from his childhood, and when he became king he ‘never ate his rice meal without meat’. One day, through the carelessness of the cook, the meat reserved for the king’s table was eaten by the palace dogs. The cook went out to purchase a fresh supply, but not being able to do so he was seized with fear. ‘If I should serve a meal without meat, I am a dead man. What am I to do?’ To save his own life the cook went to a cemetery and cut off a piece of flesh from the thigh of a man who had died a short time before. The cook roasted the meat and served it up to the king. He relished the dish immensely and inquired of the cook, ‘What meat is it?’ The cook hesitated to tell the truth, but when the king insisted and promised not to punish him he related the whole affair. The king ordered him to be silent about the matter, and in future always to serve him human flesh. The cook was frightened by this order; but the king consoled him and suggested that he could secure the supply from ‘the numbers of men in prison’, or by capturing men on the pretext that they were thieves.¹

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¹ *Jātaka*, v, 247–8.

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The painter, in order to bring home the carnivorous tendency of the king, born of a man and a lioness, has delineated three scenes at Ajanta, showing the cutting off of human flesh from an impaled victim, the cooking of the flesh in the royal kitchen, and its serving up to the king in his dining-room. The first scene is found on the rock-wall between the ‘proceeding of the lioness to the royal palace’ and the *Abhisheka*, described above. It is a gruesome interlude. A man is shown impaled with a spear which has passed through his chest and back, and another person (? butcher) is cutting off pieces of flesh from his hip with a knife (Plate XXVI *a*). A servant, shown behind the butcher, is taking the pieces of flesh to the kitchen, shown above. The kitchen is a plain structure with four wooden columns and a grass roof resting on a bamboo framework. Inside the kitchen several pots may be seen hung from the timber of the roof with slings. They apparently contain oil, *ghee* (clarified butter), honey, pickles, and condiments. Some vessels are on the fire, and the cook, whose face is kept by the artist turned towards the bazaar through which the lioness is passing, evidently wants to suggest that his cooking of the human flesh is the result of the unnatural union of Saudāsa’s parents. The cook, while looking towards the bazaar scene, is also pointing out with his forefinger the two vessels in which the flesh is being cooked. Higher up is the royal dining-room with the pantry attached to it, towards the left. The dining-room is a pillared building with a flat roof and an open court, at the end of which areca-nut or palm-trees are growing. In the pantry a servant with beard and moustache and coarse features is shown sitting. In front of him are six vessels, four piled one above the other in one place and two similarly arranged in another place. At the top of the latter pile is a tray containing fruit (?). Near by, a small pile of greenstuff (? salad) may also be noticed. Behind the pillar, set between the dining-room and the pantry, another servant may be seen who is serving dishes from the pantry to the king's table. The king is sitting on a low chair, and he has a small circular table in front of him upon which cups and small plates are arranged. Some vessels may be seen around the table as well. Two attendants are standing behind the chair who probably hold fly-whisks. There are some figures to the right of the table also, but as the colours have faded and the drawing also is indistinct, they cannot be identified in the reproduction.¹

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¹ In the original fresco the figures of two maids can, however, be traced, one of whom holds a fan with a long stick. The shape of the brassière is worthy of notice. The other maid has stooped down to present a dish with a conical lid to the king.

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Below the dining-room, near the steps, there are two figures, one of whom may represent the cook, whose presence, according to custom, may be necessary to ascertain that the king has relished the dishes cooked by him, or to receive instructions regarding the next meal. There is another servant to the left of the steps who may also be attached to the kitchen, because he is pointing with his finger to a certain dish placed on the table before the king. It may be the human flesh, the favourite dish of the king. These scenes, when eliminated from the association of procuring, cooking, serving, and eating human flesh, are interesting as showing some aspects of the court-life of the time (fifth century A.D.) when this fresco was painted.²

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² The subject is discussed in the Introductory Remarks, p. 10.

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To increase the interest of the story the painter has delineated two more scenes showing the resentment of the people at the slaughter of human beings, and their protest to the king against his cannibalism. To begin with the first scene, a row of houses with pillared porticoes³ can be made out in the background. In front of the houses there is probably a road, in the middle of which a man is shown tied to a wooden frame (press); he is perhaps to be slaughtered for the royal kitchen. There are four men around him, one of whom is armed with a sword and has an ornamental band tied round his head. He appears to be a palace-servant, deputed to kill the man placed in the press. His left hand is placed on the back of the victim and the right arm is raised up to strike the blow. A man on the right is pulling back the palace-servant to deter him from striking. Two more men, who are by the side and in front of the victim, are also warning the palace-servant, as is shown by the gestures of their fingers. By the opportune help of these people the victim appears to have been released, because, a little to the left, he is seen being led by the two men who were by his side and in front when he was tied to the frame. The gait of the victim indicates that his back has become stiff owing to his remaining in the press for a long time. His long-drawn face and pallor are worthy of notice.

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³ The rooms have windows in the front wall to admit light and air. The openings of the windows are fitted with screens of carved woodwork (Plate XXXIII b).

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The next scene shows King Saudāsa sitting in a pavilion of the royal palace. He appears to be in a state of perplexity, as is indicated by the expression of his face as well as by the gesture of his hand. Two maids holding fly-whisks are standing behind his chair; one of them is of a ruddy complexion and the other is dark. The features and the poses of these maids are extremely graceful (Plate XXXIV), and the artist's love of detail is shown in the red tint of the corners of their eyes. Their faces, however, show feelings of consternation. To the right of Saudāsa two more ladies are represented whose figures are damaged in the fresco, but the gestures made by their hands again suggest sorrow and dismay.

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In front of Saudāsa is the minister, seated on a low chair, who is listening to the complaint which is being made by a man kneeling before him. To show his respect to the minister he has joined his hands and stretched them towards the minister. There is a dish containing something (?human flesh) in front of the figure making supplication. There is another figure immediately behind him. These two may represent the cook and the victim who was to be slaughtered and was afterwards released. Above the kneeling figure who has made the complaint is the chief guard of the court, who is dressed in a long white coat and holds a long staff in his hand. To the left of the guard are probably the two men who helped in the release of the victim in the last scene, and who have brought him for justice to the royal court. Close to these two men, on the left side, is a soldier dressed in a white jacket and armed with a sword, which he has placed on his shoulder. He also has a tray in his hand, probably containing human flesh, to supply a further proof of the cannibalism of the king. According to the legend, Kāḷahatthi, the Commander-in-Chief, gave orders to his officers to trace out and capture ‘the man-eating robber’.¹ The soldier shown in the painting may therefore be identified with one of the officers deputed by Kāḷahatthi to investigate the affair.

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¹ *Jātaka*, v, 249.

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Farther towards the left are some more men, probably those who have lost their relatives and dear ones by the cruel acts of the cook in serving human flesh to the king. They also have come to the palace to seek justice. They are dressed like mendicants and one of them holds a water-bottle in his hand. There is another man, to the right of the king's chair, who may be a servant of the kitchen acquainted with the secret of the cannibalism of the king. He is rubbing his hands nervously as if in fear.

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Another interesting feature of this part of the fresco is the representation of the stables, which may be noticed above the royal court where people have assembled for justice. The stables have a low wall in front, reaching up to the chests of the horses. On this wall pillars have been built up which support the roof. Inside the stables saddles may be noticed, placed on pegs fixed into the wall. The saddles in their shape do not differ much from the saddles of the present day. The heads of four horses are visible; one is silver-grey, another chestnut, another bay, and the fourth white. Their finely shaped heads show that they are highly bred.

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According to the *Jātaka*, Kāḷahatthi, the Commander-in-Chief, argued with the king regarding the evil consequences of eating human flesh, but his words fell on deaf ears and the king chose to depart from the kingdom rather than give up ‘eating man’s flesh’.² The scene of the departure of Saudāsa, as painted at Ajanta, shows that the army, including elephant-riders, horsemen, and infantry, have come out to fight him, but he, with his inborn lion-like courage, is combating them with a sword in his hand, with which he is cutting down his opponents like a ‘growth of reeds’. The scene is shown in Plate XXXVIIb, below that in which Saudāsa as a young boy was represented practising the throwing of the javelin. He is shown standing in the pillared portico of the royal palace, his pose, and the fact that he holds a long unsheathed sword in his right hand and a round shield in his left, indicating that he is ready to make the attack. Some ladies of the palace, to be seen on the right side of Saudāsa, are watching the incident. Lower down, the injured bodies of two soldiers, who were armed with swords, are lying on the ground. The position of one of them, who is dressed in a white coat, shows graphically how he fell down after being wounded. Another stalwart soldier, to the left of the last, has covered his face with a large rectangular shield to save himself from the stroke of Saudāsa’s sword. There are five more soldiers, armed with swords and shields, who have come quite close to Saudāsa with the intention of capturing or killing him. The wild glare of their eyes indicates their fury. One of them at the back has his teeth exposed in rage. He has a sharp curved sword in his hand, while his long hair, which is spread over his shoulders, is tied near the forehead with an ornamental band, showing his superior rank in the army. This soldier has also a beard.

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² Ibid., 249-57.

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In the lower part of the fresco, on the right side, three horsemen may be seen, riding on bay, grey, and white animals. They appear to be officers. One of them in the middle is dressed in a green coat and holds a large bow in his left hand. He has also a long, straight sword hung by his left side. The saddle-cloth of the horse of this officer is of a check design. By the side and in front of these horsemen are seen footmen, armed with swords, shields, and spears. Above the horsemen are two elephants with princes or noblemen riding on them. The *charkaṭās* and the *mahāvats* of the elephants may also be seen above them. The figures of the elephants have, as usual, been drawn with much precision and effect. One of the animals is pinkish-white, while the other is dark grey. Farther up, the same elephants may be seen going back, indicating evidently the retreat of the army owing to the panic caused by Saudāsa’s extraordinary strength and the deadly nature of his sword-strokes. Behind the elephants some footmen holding flags and armed with swords and shields can also be seen; they are retreating.

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Saudāsa, after his departure from his capital (Benares), took up his abode in a forest and became notorious in the country as the ‘man-eating robber’. Some episodes connected with Saudāsa’s life in the forest are painted near the end of the back wall, and are also continued on the left wall, but as the *Jātaka* version is not closely followed at Ajanta the identification of some of the scenes is not certain.

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To begin with the scene painted in the middle of the rock-wall to the left of the first cell-door, there is a lake situated in the middle of a park and surrounded by trees with rich and variegated foliage. At one end of the lake a stalwart man may be seen holding a thick metal rod of chased work in his right hand and bearing a prince with refined features on his shoulders. A little farther towards the right, by the side of steps which descend to the waters of the lake, is a reddish creature with ugly teeth and coarse features. He is grinning in an inhuman manner, and his forehead-band, which is set with three black disks, is also intended to suggest his nefarious character. On his right side the same strong man who was carrying a prince on his shoulders appears again. Below, four ladies are swimming in the lake. They have been frightened by the appearance of crocodiles and other water-monsters from the waters of the lake. The head of the monster near the dark lady, at the right end of the lake, is like that of a dog. The pose of this lady admirably conveys the suggestion of terror. Farther down, a royal army comprising elephant-riders, horsemen, and infantry is shown as if marching. Near the bottom of the painting a spirited horse is rearing and plunging, but the rider has not been disconcerted by the unexpected swerving of the animal and is sitting firmly in his saddle.

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The events represented in the above scene tally with those given in the *Jātaka*; for example, the red creature with ugly features is evidently the goblin who lived with Saudāsa in the forest for several days and taught him the spell which endowed him with extraordinary ‘strength, speed of foot, and increase of prestige’. The stalwart man shown in the painting is apparently Saudāsa himself, and the prince on his shoulders is Sutasoma, the king of Indraprastha, whom the former captured with a view to completing the number of one hundred and one princes who were to be slaughtered in fulfilment of a vow made by him to the tree-spirit. The pool represented in the painting is the royal tank of the Migāchira park, into which Saudāsa, according to the *Jātaka*, descended in order to make a sudden attack on Sutasoma, who was strongly protected by the royal army, composed of elephant-riders, horsemen, and infantry.¹ Further, it is mentioned in the *Jātaka* that when Saudāsa captured Sutasoma, he did not treat him as he did the other princes whom he had captured, and whom he lifted up by their ankles, keeping their heads downwards. On the contrary he showed due respect to Sutasoma and placed him on his shoulders.² The coming out of the water-animals from the tank, as shown in the painting, is also supported by the legend which mentions: ‘So he (Saudāsa) went down into the tank and stood there, covering his head with a lotus leaf. By reason of his great glory, the fish, tortoises, and the like, fell back and swam about in large bodies at the water’s edge.’³

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¹ *Jātaka*, v, 259-60.

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² Ibid., 261.

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³ Ibid., 259.

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The figures which cannot be easily placed within the framework of the text of the *Jātaka* are the inmates of the *shāmiyāna* set up to the right of the royal tank, comprising a king and queen with a maid, who are watching the ladies swimming in the tank. They may be the father and mother of Sutasoma, who may have wished to be present at the ceremonial bath of their son on the day of ‘the Phussa conjunction’. The interlude painted to the right of an elephant of Sutasoma’s army (Plate XXXI *b*) is more puzzling, because in it again a king is shown seated on a throne with two men in front of him. One of them is sitting on a low chair and the other on a cushion placed on the floor. The king is wearing a high crown and the two men in front of him have black marks on their foreheads, similar to that placed on the forehead of Saudāsa in the above scene (Plate XXXI *a*). The king is talking to these men, probably on a religious subject, and they are listening to his discourse attentively, as is indicated.

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cated by the gestures of their hands. There are two maids holding *chaurīs* behind the king, and a third one may also be noticed between the pillars who is bringing something on a tray to the king. There is another tray, containing apparently a piece of cloth, placed in front of the two men. Who is the king, and who are the two men whom the king wants to convert from their evil professions—indicated by the black marks on their foreheads—by teaching them the Law and by presenting material gifts?

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The scene painted below the last (Plate XXXI *b*), showing a prince and princess with some attendants, may represent Sutasoma’s leaving the royal palace to proceed to the Migāchira park in order to bathe in the royal tank there. The figure of the prince is damaged, but those of the princess and attendants are intact and exhibit fine modelling combined with clever decorative skill. Among the attendants there are three maids and a boy. They are carrying vessels and ointments such as the prince (? Sutasoma) would require for his bath.

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Above the lake-scene, in the upper part of the wall, the fresco has become darkened through various causes, and hence the incidents painted there are not very clear; yet such figures as can be made out show the retreat of the royal army after Sutasoma’s temporary release from the grip of Saudāsa, who allowed him to go to the brahman Nanda, to listen to the four stanzas which were taught to this brahman by the Buddha Kassapa. The retreat of Sutasoma’s army must begin from the left wall of the back corridor, since the hind-legs of the elephant which appears at the left side in this Plate (XXXII *a*) are visible on that wall. Near the trunk of the elephant are four attendants, two of whom are carrying the royal banner and umbrella, whilst the other two are armed with swords and daggers. In front of these attendants there are two more who are proceeding in opposite directions at a rapid pace, as is indicated by the positions of their legs. A little to the right is an areca-nut tree, near which Saudāsa and Sutasoma are seen engaged in conversation. Saudāsa can be identified by the black mark on his forehead and Sutasoma by the royal silver staff of chased work in front of him. Sutasoma is apparently asking the permission of Saudāsa to visit the brahman Nanda in order to listen to ‘the four stanzas’.¹ Farther towards the right, amidst trees and boulders, two figures may be seen represented as if climbing up the hill. One of them may be Sutasoma and the other the brahman, who is conducting him to his abode. A little higher up, towards the left, Sutasoma and the brahman are seen again, the latter sitting in an attitude of reverence, with joined hands, in front of Sutasoma. He is reciting the four stanzas, for which he gets the reward of one thousand pieces (? coins of gold) for each verse.²

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¹ When Sutasoma was proceeding to the Migāchira park, a brahman who had come from Taxila accosted him on the way, and said that four stanzas containing the Truth had been taught to him by the Buddha Kassapa, which he was eager to recite before Sutasoma. The latter was pleased with what the brahman said, but told him that he could not turn back at that moment to listen to the stanzas, but asked his councillors to look after the brahman. Afterwards, when Saudāsa had captured Sutasoma, the prince told ‘the man-eater’ of the visit of the brahman, and explained his keen desire to listen to the stanzas. Saudāsa at first did not believe his victim, but when Sutasoma pledged his honour as a Kshatriya to return, Saudāsa let him go.

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² *Ibid.*, 263-4. Cf. *Jātaka*, v, 259 ff.

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After listening to the Truth contained in ‘the four stanzas’ Sutasoma, according to the *Jātaka* version, went to his parents to beg them to take up the administration of the kingdom, because he had to keep his promise to go back to ‘the man-eater’. The elephant-riders, the horsemen, and the footmen painted on the right side of the hermitage where Sutasoma met the brahman represent the march of the royal army towards the city-gate, which is visible at the right end of the fresco (Plate XXXII *b*). Sutasoma himself is riding on a spirited horse, and can be easily recognized by the royal umbrella over his head. An officer wearing a peaked cap is riding by his side. His horse is going at a gallop. Behind, there is another officer riding on a bay horse and holding a banner in his hand. Behind the horses is a line of elephants moving side by side and forming a solid mass. The footmen are marching in front and they are armed with swords.

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On the left wall of the back corridor the artist has painted with much effect the assemblage of the entire army which had come for the protection of Sutasoma. The four ‘arms’ of the army, that is, the elephant-riders, the charioteers, the horsemen, and the footmen mentioned in the *Jātaka*, are all portrayed there.¹ The subject appears to be a battle-scene, because in the tumult which arose at the capture of Sutasoma by Saudāsa the different units of the army began to attack each other. The rapid movement of the horses, the archers stretching the strings of their bows to the full length, the warriors brandishing their swords, the galloping of the horses of the chariots and their wheeling round, and the heavy trot of the elephants all suggest intense commotion, which the artist has most graphically expressed in the painting (Plates XXVII *c* and XXVIII).

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¹ *Jātaka*, v, 265, n. 1.

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To describe the subject: if a beginning be made from the left bottom corner, a high officer is seen coming at full gallop on a bay horse. He is met by two other officers who have been proceeding from the opposite direction at a still faster speed, since the result of being suddenly reined in the horse of one rider is rearing up with his forelegs in the air while the steed of the other has turned his neck on one side in arresting his forward movement in obedience to the curb. These two officers have evidently come to receive instructions from the other. The accoutrements of these three officers, striped socks and peaked fur-brimmed caps (helmets), are interesting, since they show influence coming from Western Asiatic countries.

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Behind, towards the right, there are two more horses, and the rider of one of them has turned his animal round in order to direct a company of soldiers armed with swords and shields. A little above, some archers may be noticed who are shooting arrows from their bows. In the middle of the painting is a team of four horses pulling a chariot at a gallop. The fresco being damaged above, the body of the chariot cannot be discerned, but the figure of the driver can be traced. In front of the horses are some soldiers, each with a differently coloured skin, the artist’s object being to suggest that the army consisted of units raised from people of various races. One of these soldiers, of a pale hue, wears a steel breast-plate, showing that the armourer’s craft already existed at the time when the subject was painted (fifth century). The blue colour of the curved swords also suggests that they, too, are of tempered steel.

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In the original fresco another chariot can be descried, depicted a little above the last. Between the two chariots and above them soldiers armed with swords are visible. Higher still, a tree with the heads of two men amidst its branches may be noticed. These men may be two of the one hundred and one princes captured by Saudāsa to be slaughtered as an offering to the tree-spirit.¹

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¹ *Jātaka*, v, 258.

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Returning to the lower part of the fresco, three officers may be noticed, riding on horses and coming towards the officer who had turned his horse to direct the company of soldiers to his right. The soldiers are showing much activity: one is balancing his spear, some are brandishing their swords, and the positions of their legs suggest rapid movement. Above the company of swordsmen a party of archers may be noticed who are discharging arrows from their bows. One of the archers, perhaps the chief of the party, is again wearing steel armour. A little higher are two chariots opposite one another. A figure in the chariot on the left is shooting an arrow at the occupants of the other chariot. A man in this second chariot has raised his hand, either to show his helplessness or in token of surrender. A soldier below this chariot has been shown pierced in the head by a long sword. Six warriors can be seen at this point, but the rearward movement of the elephants shown at the top suggests that the army is retreating.

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The fresco, although much blackened by climatic and other causes, presents clearly the tumult and frenzy of a battle-scene, the different types of arms used in those days, and the methods of manœuvring of the army; it may therefore be of interest to students of contemporary military equipment and the tactics of war practised at the time.

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Below this scene, on the right side of the cell-door (Plate XXIX *b*), the artist has painted a minor event of the *Jātaka*, namely Sutasoma’s visit, after his temporary release from the grip of Saudāsa, to the house where the brahman, who was to recite ‘the four stanzas’ to him, was put up by his councillors at his instance.² Sutasoma is shown riding on a white horse, the portrayal of both rider and horse being very realistic. Sutasoma is dressed in a green coat and wears sandals, the straps of which are tied round his ankles. A straight sword hangs from his belt at his left side. An attendant is holding an umbrella over his head. The figure of the horse is a clever piece of drawing, showing the slender limbs of the animal, with a suggestion of movement indicated by the position of his forelegs. A groom with long curled hair may be seen behind the horse. Sutasoma is attended by an officer who has dismounted, but his horse, a grey animal, may be seen close to Sutasoma’s steed. There is a belt of hills in the background and also a tree with large leaves—a banyan or teak. There is another tree in the foreground which appears to be a mango.

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² ‘And with these words he (Sutasoma) commanded his councillors, saying “Go ye and in a certain house of a brahman prepare a couch, and arrange a dining place under cover.”’ *Jātaka*, v, 260.

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Below are several huts, one of them being prominent on account of its open façade. The roof of this hut slopes on two sides, and is covered with matting at the top. Below, the framework is of bamboo, but the main props and cross-beams of the hut are of timber. Several pots are shown hung in a sling (Plate XXIX *b*). A woman is standing in front of the hut, and her child has clasped her for protection through fear of an old mendicant who is saying something to the woman. The figure of the mendicant is mutilated, but his wild stare is terrifying. He has a small pot hung from a sling in his right hand, and a long staff in his left.

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There are swine and oxen in the yard of the hut, and the entire scene is typical of Indian country life, which has undergone very little change since this subject was painted.

Cites (3)

Jātakatthavaṇṇanā — Pāli
Jātaka — Pāli
Jātakamālā — Āryaśūra, Sanskrit