Ajanta: The Colour and Monochrome Reproductions of the Ajanta Frescoes Based on Photography v4.c16.s28: The Siṁhala Avadāna

Ajanta: The Colour and Monochrome Reproductions of the Ajanta Frescoes Based on Photography v4.c16.s28

Language: English

The Siṁhala Avadāna

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The story is painted on the entire wall of the right corridor and is continued to the upper part of the pilaster between this corridor and the one at the back of Cave XVII.

THE story which is painted at Ajanta differs slightly from the version given in *Divyāvadāna* (No. 36, pp. 523-8)¹ and contains some details of *Jātaka*, No. 196, according to which five hundred merchants, after the wreck of their boats, were cast ashore near a city of ogresses, who lured the merchants by their charms and provoked them to become their husbands, who he is telling something to the king. Below, in front of the throne, are five guards armed with daggers and swords (or short spears). The daggers are stuck into the *dhotis* which the guards wear round their waists. Towards the right is the stable of an elephant where a trough for water and a basin for food may be seen. The elephant, which according to the story had run away, has evidently now returned, since he is standing in the stable, and three persons are looking eagerly at him from a door which opens upon the palace enclosure (? enclave). The gate of the stable may be seen towards the right; it has a barrel-shaped roof. Outside the gate the figure of the elephant can be seen again. The *mahāvat* is shown perched on the neck of the elephant, suggesting that he has succeeded in bringing the mad animal back to the stables. The fresco has become very black and the details of the painting are invisible, except in the case of a few figures which can only be made out with much difficulty. The identification of the subject is therefore by no means certain.

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¹ A summary of the story as told in *Divyāvadāna* has been made by Dr. R. N. Dandekar, the distinguished secretary of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, and his able assistant, Shri V. J. Rahurkar, and is given here with their kind permission: Formerly, at the time when king Siṃhakeśarī ruled in Siṃhakalpa, there lived in that city a very rich merchant named Siṃhaka. His wife gave birth to a beautiful son, whom he named Siṃhala. In course of time, young Siṃhala became well versed in various arts and sciences. He then requested his father to allow him to go on a sea-voyage. The father tried to dissuade him from his intended voyage, but his advice proved of no avail. He finally

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bands. Afterwards, in the night-time, the ogresses began to slay and eat the merchants, who fell into a panic, and thought to themselves, ‘We must make our escape.’ The Bodhisattva, who was then born as a ‘flying horse’, passed over the city, and on seeing the merchants in their sad predicament was filled with compassion and offered to take them home. He conveyed away as many as two hundred and fifty of the stranded merchants, and the rest, who did not avail themselves of his benevolent offer, were destroyed by the ogresses. Now in the fresco at Ajanta the adoration of the miraculous horse has been given as much prominence as the courage of Simhala, who vanquished the hosts of ogresses and after the conquest of their city became king of the place (Tāmradvīpa). The version given in the Divyāvadāna lays stress only on the later events of the story and does not exalt the miraculous power of the horse or his benevolent instinct. The story is also given in Mahāvastu,¹ and by the time it was painted at Ajanta (fifth century) it had evidently developed fresh features based on older legends combined with the later versions.

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¹ Mahāvastu, iii, 67 ff., and Contes, Nos. 37-59.

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The story begins on the rock-wall with the shipwreck-scene painted a little above the ground between the third and fourth cell-doors. It goes up above the top of the fourth cell-allowed him to go, but warned him that he would have to encounter many dangers on the way. Simhala then left Simhakalpā, accompanied by five hundred other merchants, and carried with him abundant merchandise. After visiting many places on the way he ultimately reached the seashore. During the voyage, all the other merchants were devoured by rākshasīs, and Simhala was the only one to reach Jambūdvīpa safely. The rākshasī who had been entrusted with the killing of Simhala was, however, urged by the other rākshasīs to carry out her task. She thereupon assumed a dreadful form and appeared before Simhala. But when the latter unsheathed his sword she was frightened and fled.

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In the meantime a merchant had arrived there from Madhyadeśa. The rākshasī fell at his feet and said to him: ‘I am the daughter of the king of Tāmradvīpa and was married to Simhala. During the voyage his ship was wrecked in the sea. He therefore abandoned me, thinking me to be inauspicious.’ When the merchant from Madhyadeśa went to Simhala to plead on behalf of the rākshasī, Simhala told him that the woman was not a princess but a rākshasī. In the course of time Simhala returned home. The rākshasī also, disguised as a beautiful damsel and carrying with her a handsome child resembling Simhala, went to Simhala’s house. The people took the child to be Simhala’s son and asked the woman where she came from. She told them the same story about her being the princess of Tāmradvīpa and about her abandonment by her husband Simhala. When the latter’s parents came to know of it, they asked him to forgive and accept her. Simhala then exposed to them her real character. Thereupon the rākshasī went to the king and narrated the same story to him. To the king also Simhala exposed her real character. But the king, who was enamoured of her beauty, said to him: ‘If you do not want her, give her to me.’ ‘She is a rākshasī’ replied Simhala, ‘I will not give her to you nor will I prevent you from taking her.’ The king then admitted her to his harem.

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Afterwards the rākshasī administered a sleeping-dose to the king and all his harem. She then went to the other rākshasīs and said to them: ‘Why do you trouble about an ordinary merchant like Simhala? I have given a sleeping-dose to king Simhakeśarī himself and all his harem. Come, let us devour them.’ All the rākshasīs accordingly went to the palace and devoured the king together with his whole family. In the morning the palace-doors were not opened and vultures were seen hovering over the buildings. All the people were stunned by the sight. When Simhala came to know of it, he went there and could easily guess what must have happened. He told the people that the king must have been killed by the rākshasī. With a sword in his hand he then scaled the palace-gates and frightened away the rākshasīs. He opened the doors, the ministers searched the palace, but no trace was to be found of the royal family. In consultation with the people, the ministers then offered the throne to Simhala, who accepted the offer on condition that all people should obey him. In course of time Simhala raised a powerful army and set out to drive away the rākshasīs from Tāmradvīpa. When attacked by Simhala, the rākshasīs agreed to leave the island. It was then colonized by Simhala, and thereafter was called Simhaladvīpa after its conqueror.

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door, turns towards the left, and reaches to the end of the wall, covering the upper part of the pilaster there; thence it moves downwards and occupies the wall-surface between cell-doors 1 and 2 and 2 and 3. The portion of the fresco showing the shipwreck-scene is much damaged (LXIII *a*), but the wreckage of two boats, caused either by the attack of sea-monsters or by the striking of the boats against a coral reef, can easily be made out. The coral growth and some sea-anemones with dentate leaves are shown at the bottom of the water. The head of a white monster with a thick muzzle and rabbit-like ears is visible between the two boats. Another monster, painted red, has swallowed one arm of a man who has fallen into the sea and seems to be entangled in weeds. He is looking helplessly upwards for succour. Another monster, whose muzzle is like that of a hippopotamus, is chasing a man who has also fallen into the sea. The features of this man are well drawn, and his fixed look suggests terror and despair. There are some large fishes around the boat, two of which appear to be of colossal size; they may be sharks, which abound in the Indian Ocean. Two men may also be noticed holding ropes which would seem to have been thrown from the boats in an attempt at rescue. They are both near the bow of the boat, in the rear. The drawing of the head of the man shown in front exhibits clever workmanship; the artist has placed high lights on the lip, nose, and forehead in order to show the refined features of the figure to advantage. Some men may be seen still in the wrecked boats; in the rear vessel, a tall, strong man is visible at the end of the boat, and he is perhaps the steersman. Another stalwart figure is holding firmly to the rear mast near the stern. There is another figure, the head of which is now destroyed, who is clinging to the mizzenmast of the boat, with his arm round it. In the front boat there are also two men, and one of them, in the bows, holds in his hands a box tied with string. The box evidently contains some precious articles which the merchant does not want to lose, even when in peril of his life. The man behind this merchant holds a rope in his hands with a view to throwing a line to such passengers as have fallen into the sea and whose lives he is attempting to save. At the top right corner of the fresco there are three men, painted in different colours, struggling in the water to escape from monsters which are approaching them (Plate LXIII *a*).

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The next scene represents the island of the ogresses, who, having by their blandishments and physical charms enticed the merchants who were cast ashore there, and having spent the day with them in play and feasting, assumed their real appearance at night and devoured them.

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The gay revels indulged in during the day are depicted by the artist with great zest, and some of the figures, in their grace of pose, refinement of features, and details of dress and ornament, rank among the finest specimens of the art of Ajanta. Although the fresco, owing to the deterioration of the wall-surface, shows large gaps, five pairs may still be seen in the middle enjoying themselves in pavilions or *shāmiyānās* set up in the island. The most prominent pair, shown in the upper part of the wall between the third and fourth cell-doors, consists of a slim, dark-skinned person sitting with an ogress who is also dark in colour. The male figure has placed his arm round the shoulders of the woman, who is looking coquettishly at him and appears to be pleased with his lack of restraint. The graceful pose of the female figure and the firm outline of her body exhibit art of a high order. A little higher, above the fourth celldoor (Plate LXIVa), four more pairs may be seen. In the pillared pavilion at the extreme left side a short-statured, pretty woman is offering a cup of wine to her companion, who, as is suggested by his pose, is in a dallying mood. The next pair, shown sitting under a shāmiyāna to the right of the first pair, shows a dark woman sitting almost in the lap of the male figure. She has stretched her arm across the chest of her companion in order to encircle his neck, and in this action her sārī has slipped down to her waist. The facial features of this couple are somewhat obliterated, but the outline of the body shows perfect command of drawing. Below this pair a woman wearing a green silk cholī and striped sārī may be seen sitting on one of the upper rungs of a bamboo ladder, perhaps trying to listen to the amorous conversation going on in the shāmiyāna set up above. Farther on the right is another couple sitting in a pillared room. The room has flower-beds and trees in front of it; and at a lower level an amazon may be noticed, armed with a long straight sword which she has placed on her shoulder. There is another woman to be seen between the two right-hand pillars of the pavilion, whose duty may also be to guard the pavilion. This may be the room of the ogresses. The features of the queen (?) are indistinct, but the pose suggests that she is flirting with her male companion.

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In the second row, to the left of the woman sitting on the ladder, a dark woman has fallen asleep, or is in a state of inebriation, at which the male figure is struck with astonishment. A maidservant has brought some edibles for the couple; she is shown standing behind them. Another maidservant is sitting in front of the couch on which the dark woman is resting. The coiffure of the dark woman, which consists of a series of rolls of hair arranged one above the other, is well rendered. The outline of the body of this woman, who is in a reclining position, is also worthy of notice.

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The coiffure of another figure, although the painting is much damaged, shows a highly developed style of hair-dressing and consequently an advanced stage of culture in the social life of the people (Plates LXII and LXVb).¹ The features of the woman are also very refined. She was probably in the close embrace of a male figure whose hand may be noticed round her neck and left shoulder. The woman has amorously clasped the wrist of her male companion, and the emotion felt by her is expressed by the artist in her almost visibly quivering fingers.

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¹ Lady Herringham has published a reconstruction of the subject. *Ajanta Frescoes*, Plate XXVII, Fig. 44.

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Above the fourth cell-door, at the top right corner, a white horse can be seen² which is looking with horror at the daylight revels, and evidently anticipating the dreadful fate which awaits the merchants during the night. He has opened his mouth and exposed his teeth, as if to say, ‘Who wants to go home? Who wants to go home?’³ Siṃhala, who by prescience has guessed the probable fate of his companions, accepts the offer of the ‘white horse’ and escapes from the island. The artist has shown two groups of men and women in front of the horse; the group close to the animal shows a chief and a green-skinned woman in the forefront and two other male figures behind. The chief probably represents Siṃhala, and the green woman the ogress who wants to go with him. They are both in an attitude of reverence before the horse. The pose and the features of the green woman are very attractive. The other group, which is shown to the left at some distance, represents those merchants who refused to accept the offer of the horse and continued to enjoy themselves. One merchant (?)—a dark-skinned figure—is represented with a cup of wine in his right hand.

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² The white colour of the horse is specially mentioned in the *Jātaka*, ii, 90.

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³ Ibid.

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The departure of Siṃhala on the back of the white flying horse is painted above, but before describing it we may note two other aspects of the character of the ogresses, showing how they behaved with their visitors, because these matters are mentioned in the *Jātaka* and are also represented on the rock-wall at Ajanta (Plates LXI–LXII).¹ The artist, side by side with the scene in which the ogresses are shown enjoying themselves with the merchants, has painted them as ordinary women, adorned and bedecked, even ‘with children on their hips’, when they approach the merchants during the day-time. This deceptive power of theirs may be noticed in the group shown a little above the main tent, on the right side, in which five women (ogresses) are represented, one holding a child in her arms. The other scene is gruesome in the extreme, since it shows the ogresses in their real form, with grey, woolly, unkempt hair, wild, staring eyes, and loose breasts, drinking human blood in cups, or munching the entrails of the victims whose chests and bellies they have ripped open. The artist has shown as much imagination in depicting the ugly, disgusting features of the ogresses as he showed in drawing the comely figures of the women represented in the gayer scenes. They are all armed with large curved knives like the *dāo* of the present day. One of them, a grey figure, is sitting on the chest of her victim; another is drinking his blood.

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¹ *Jātaka*, ii, 89-90.

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Above this loathsome scene is shown the flight of the miraculous horse in the air, with Siṃhala on his back and other merchants clinging to the different parts of his body. According to the *Jātaka* ‘some laid hold of his tail’. The fresco in its upper part has become very dark, but two giant figures are clear, who are holding the hoofs of the miraculous horse; they may represent either more merchants or guardian spirits come to protect the horse against the attack of the ogresses. The latter seems more likely, since a little farther towards the left are represented some figures which have been thrown down from the air, evidently either by those who are sitting on the back of the horse or by those accompanying him in his flight. The horse can be traced, as if flying in the air, above the figures of those who have fallen down (Plate LXI).

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The next scene represents the miraculous horse alighting near a gateway and Siṃhala kneeling before him in gratitude for saving his life (Plates LV and LVI a). The artist from this incident onward follows largely the version given in *Divyāvadāna*, although scenes regarding the honouring of the miraculous horse which are not mentioned in the latter work are inserted here and there. To describe the story in proper sequence, the next scene on the rock-wall following Siṃhala’s return to his native place, Siṃhakalpā, represents a beautiful woman with a child at the royal court. The woman is probably the ogress, who by some supernatural power has followed Siṃhala and has brought with her the child of her illicit union with the youth (Plate LV). Close by, Siṃhala may be seen again with another person, perhaps one whom the rājā had deputed to make inquiry into the matter. The drawing of the figures of the ogress and the young Siṃhala shows considerable beauty of line, although their facial features are obliterated. According to the *Divyāvadāna* the ogress pleaded thus: ‘I am the daughter of the king of Tāmradvīpa and have been married to Siṃhala. During the voyage, his ship was wrecked in the sea; he therefore abandoned me, considering me to be inauspicious.’ The king, who is sitting on a throne at the end of a pillared hall, is enamoured by the assumed beauty of the ogress, and supposing her story to be the truth, says to Siṃhala: ‘If you do not want her, give her to me.’ ‘She is a *rākshasī*,’ replied Siṃhala; ‘I will not give her to you, nor will I prevent you from taking her.’ The rājā chooses to admit the ogress to his harem, and he sends some ladies of the court to receive her. In the fresco they are five in number, and the lady in front of the group, who is of a dark complexion, holds a goblet of liquor with grapes piled over it for the refreshment of the newly wedded wife of the rājā. The features, coiffures, costumes, and poses of these ladies are exquisite, and further, to add a comic effect to the composition, the artist has painted with the ladies a dwarf who is carrying, on a tray placed on his head, some sacred plants growing in vases for the ceremony to be performed at the reception of the rājā’s new bride. The body of the dwarf is bent in an uncomely manner under the heavy load of the tray. The most striking figure of the fresco is, however, the representation of the brahman minister, who is dressed in a long white coat and is shown leaning on a long staff in front of the rājā. The artist has drawn his facial lines in such a manner as to indicate a grave temperament and an iron will, and the portrait may remind some of the skilful character-painting of the famous Dutch painter Rembrandt. The rājā has inclined his head towards the minister to indicate that he is listening with attention to the advice of the latter, but the expression of his face in the original fresco suggests joy in the possession of a beautiful bride. There are two ladies behind the throne of the rājā and two more to the left of the minister, and a fifth one sitting on the floor near the throne of the rājā; the faces of all five betray feelings of anxiety at the wrong choice of the rājā. The heads of two more ladies may be noticed in the window overlooking the room where the rājā is sitting. Their eyes also show consternation and sorrow at the unhappy event.

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The line-work of the fresco is largely obliterated now, but such detail as remains shows the marvellous command of the artist in drawing, his refined taste in the choice of poses and drapery, and his consummate skill in the blending of colours. The arrangement of the figures is perfect, showing a feeling for rhythm as well as a sense of perspective. The pillars of the hall also convey the idea of space and distance.

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Adjoining the court-scene towards the left is another, representing the lustration of a lady who is probably the newly chosen wife of the rājā (Plates L *d* and LV). She is scantily dressed, but there is nothing provocative in her attitude; on the contrary the beauty of her limbs combined with the serene expression of her face suggests an almost religious aura, and she appears to be more of a goddess than an ordinary woman. One *gaṇa* is holding an umbrella over her head, two other similar beings are plying fly-whisks. Another *gaṇa* is bringing on his head a stool on which the lady is to sit when bathed and perfumed. His companion has poured a jar full of sacred water on the ground where the lustration-stool is to be placed. The artist, to add to the religious symbolism of the subject, has shown the lady poised on a lotus-flower, and a similar flower is carved on the stool on which she is to sit. She further holds a lotus in a dainty manner between her fingers, with two of which she has also made a *chakra* or ring. There is a *gaṇa*, a little above, towards the left, who is felicitating the lady by raising both his hands. The entire composition shows artistic and religious elements blended in a happy style, and the subject, for its exquisite workmanship and graceful lines, has been aptly compared by some European art critics with Botticelli's *Birth of Venus* in the Accademia delle Belle Arti in Florence.

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To the left of the court-room, which was apparently meant for public audience, the artist has shown in the fresco the inner buildings of the royal palace, which were entered by two lofty gateways, each at some distance from the other (Plate LIII). On entering from the first gateway the rājā has seated himself on a throne and is holding a meeting of his council, in which his minister, the religious head, and several chiefs of the state are represented. The minister is sitting on a chair in front of the rājā; behind the minister is the chief *bhikshu* (the sage of the court), as may be guessed from his robe and close-cropped hair. Close to the *bhikshu* are two other persons, one of a ruddy complexion and the other painted dark brown. Below, towards the right, is the woman (ogress) with the child, whose plaint is being reconsidered by the rājā in council. Facing the rājā and the minister are seated four chiefs, one of whom, at the extreme left end, is wearing a crown. They are all sitting on the floor and looking with astonishment at the woman, as is indicated by the gestures of their fingers. The artist has given different skin-colours and varying casts of feature to these chiefs with the object of showing that they belong to different clans. In the forecourt are two horses held by grooms who hold the reins of the horses in their hands; one of them has also a short whip. The check-pattern on the coverings of these last perhaps represents conventionally the rhinoceros-skin of which shields were usually made in ancient times.

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The line-work of the fresco has been much obliterated by the passage of time, yet such detail as has survived shows superior technical skill and high intellectual qualities in the painter.

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The next scene of the story is painted on the left side of the second cell-door, and represents the arrival of Siṃhala at the inner gateway of the palace after hearing of the destruction caused by the ogresses in the royal palace. There are two horses, one of a white colour—probably the one which helped Siṃhala in his escape from the island of ogresses and has brought him here as well, and the other green (grey), belonging to the court-official who has informed Siṃhala of the disaster. Two soldiers are shown in front of the horses, one of whom is armed with a long straight sword, and the other with a curved weapon. The headgear of the groom standing by the grey horse is worthy of notice. It is a peaked cap with flaps at the sides which can be turned down to cover the ears as a protection against the cold. Below is shown the figure of the minister, seated on a chair in a melancholy mood, and pointing with his forefinger to the catastrophe that has befallen the inmates of the palace. The portion of the fresco on the right side, close to the cell-door, has peeled off and consequently the other figures once represented in the scene are no longer visible.

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To add to the tragic effect of the incident the artist has painted two more scenes in the lower part of the fresco (Plates LIII and LXVa). In one of them, to the left of the second cell-door, three chiefs are shown sitting on chairs, and in front of them are two officials seated on the floor, one of them pointing with his finger to the royal apartments and his companion showing astonishment by his gestures. To the right of these officials are four guards standing at attention, with naked swords raised in their hands. The curled folds of the *dhotis* of these soldiers, although artistic to a degree, do not suit the dress of a warrior; similarly the styles of their hair show them to be men of fashion rather than hardy fighting men. The chiefs sitting on chairs and the officials in front are perhaps the members of the rājā's council, whom he consulted when choosing the ogress as his wife (*supra*, p. 88), and who are now shown discussing the measures to be adopted with regard to the situation. The other scene, to the right of the first cell-door, represents the rānī's parlour, in which the rājā's throne with a bolster placed at the back of it is shown vacant, and the rānī is mourning in front of it. She is sitting on the ground and in her grief has placed her head on the palm of her left hand. The sage (? minister) of the court is sitting in front of the rānī, and although a part of his figure is destroyed owing to the perishing of the fresco, the positions of his hand and head suggest that he, too, is in a sorrowful mood. In the forecourt of the parlour seven guards are in attendance, six of whom are armed with swords and shields, while one holds a long staff in his hand. He is wearing a full-sleeved white coat, while the others are naked down to their waists. The artist, for the sake of variety, has given varying tints to the faces and forms of these guards.

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The bed-room of the rājā has been shown in the uppermost stage of a three-story building, the main features of which are its pillared rooms and carved friezes. The upper part of the fresco being very dark and also badly damaged, the full detail of the bed-chamber and its occupants cannot be made out. A couch with short legs can, however, be traced in the middle apartment in which the rājā would be sleeping. His figure may be identified by his crown. A woman may also be descried sitting on the rājā's chest. The head of the woman is destroyed, but the fact that she is a woman is certain from the lower limbs of her body as well as from the ornaments she is wearing round her ankles. According to the story, this woman must be the *rākshasī* who, after killing the rājā, sat on his chest to suck his blood.

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The second stage of the building, as represented in the fresco, is somewhat clearer. There are three apartments; the middle one, which is larger than the other two, projects towards the front in the form of a spacious pillared balcony. In the left apartment there are three ladies; the middle one, who is of heavy build, has fainted at the sight of the ogresses, and her companion on the left is supporting her from behind. The third lady, to be seen near a column, is horror-struck and has placed her hand on her chin. In the middle apartment there are three ogresses and also three ladies who have been attacked by them. At the top a red ogress has clutched the back knot of the hair of the lady close to her, and is attempting to cut it with the dagger which she holds in her right hand. Another ogress, of a paler complexion, has thrown down a lady and has placed her foot on the lady's body in order to trample her to death. Yet another ogress, who is also of a pale complexion, holds a dagger in her right hand and a cup in her left. From the cup she is evidently drinking the blood of a victim. The third lady of the palace has assumed a pose showing her terror by starting backwards and bending her body away from her assailant. She has also placed one hand on her head and the other on her breast (Plate LIII).

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In the apartment on the right-hand side there is only one ogress and three ladies. The ogress has plunged a dagger into the abdomen of the lady in front of her, and having filled her cup with blood she is drinking it. The blood which has trickled from the wound of the victim may be seen in streaks over her body. The other two ladies have been seized with horror, and one of them, to suppress her cry, has placed her hand on her mouth. The other lady is also much excited, and in an effort to control her terror she has placed her hands on her breast.

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The artist has followed the version of the *Divyāvadāna* and painted vultures hovering over the palace. One bird is perched on the lofty gateway of the building, and another is sitting in the forecourt and pecking a piece of human flesh (Plate LIII). In the midst of these gruesome and dreadful surroundings, Siṃhala is shown climbing up the steps of a wooden ladder to drive away the demon women. He is armed with a long sword which has frightened the ogresses, and they are seen running away from the roof, cornices, and walls of the palace to which they had climbed in order to kill the ladies of the bed-chamber and thereby appease their appetite for human flesh and blood. The ogress nearest to Siṃhala, shown above the roof of the rānī's parlour, holds a bell in her right hand and a piece of flesh in her left. She was probably acting as a sentinel, and the bell was to be used to give an alarm to her party against danger. A red vulture has swooped down and fixed its beak into the piece of flesh in the hand of this ogress in order to snatch it from her. A little above is a pale demon holding a woman of a greenish colour in her cruel grasp. Towards the left, vultures may be seen flying over the pieces of flesh which are lying below on the floor. Eight of these birds can be counted in the original fresco, and the long naked necks of some of them are painted very realistically.

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Farther up, at the right end of the lintel of the cell-door, is a red ogress with bulging eyeballs, protruding tusks like those of a boar, and dishevelled hair. In her left hand, which is raised, she has a piece of flesh, while with the forefinger of her right hand she is making a sign as a warning to the other ogresses. A crow may be seen snapping at the piece of flesh which she has in her hand. Her attitude, springing up with bent knees, show that she is intended to be shown flying upwards. Near by, towards the left, is another white demon, holding a cup with red stripes (? streaks of human blood). Three birds of prey have swooped down from the air to snatch the contents of the cup. Farther to the right is another ogress of a pale complexion and frightful appearance, holding a red cup with round pieces of human flesh piled in it. A vulture has come down close to the cup to share its contents.

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The flight of the ogresses is continued on the face of the pilaster on the left side of the corridor, and the figures of five of these creatures may be traced in the original fresco, though the upper two, being very dark, are not clear in the reproduction (Plate LI *b*). The red ogress at the top, on the left side, holds the leg of a victim; the next below her has a cup of blood in her left hand and something else, perhaps a lump of flesh, in her right. The third ogress, who is of a dark complexion, again holds the leg of a victim in her hand. The legs of these ogresses are again drawn in such a manner as to suggest that they are flying up in the air.

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After driving away the ogresses from the palace Siṃhala led a large army to chastise the latter for the havoc which they had wrought by killing the rājā with his family and attendants. The army, which includes elephant-riders, footmen, and cavalry, is shown coming out from the city-gate. Siṃhala is riding on a white elephant and is accompanied by two chiefs who are riding on two separate elephants, one of them being dark grey and the other a pinkish grey. These chiefs have umbrellas over their heads, held by their attendants, but with a view to showing their devotion to Siṃhala and their sense of being his vassals, they carry fly-whisks in their hands. Siṃhala has a crown on his head, which shows that he has now been acknowledged as king by the people of Siṃhakalpā following the death of Siṃhakesarī at the hand of the rākṣasīs. There are a number of footmen behind the elephants holding spears and flags. Some of the banners have tufts of hair at the top. Tufts of hair, probably of yak's tail, have also been used for the adornment of the elephants. The elephants are further bedecked with disks and bands of jewellery, fixed round their foreheads and trunks. As usual, they are drawn with much realistic effect, and the swaying of their trunks as they move forward is admirably represented. The white and pink elephants have entwined their trunks as they pace forward, to indicate their attachment to one another. There is a company of footmen in front of the elephants who are armed either with spears or with swords and shields, these footmen being so placed in the marching column that each swordsman has by his side a spearman, first on his right and then on his left, throughout the line of men. The artist, for the sake of variety, has given varying colours and different features to these soldiers, apparently to show that the troops are of mixed races. Their upper garment is a half-sleeved jacket so short that it covers only the chest, and the waist is exposed.

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Below, the army is shown crossing the sea in boats, which are interesting from the point of view of their shape and their holding capacity. Beginning from the left side, the first boat has four horsemen in it. The horses of three riders are visible, but the mount of the fourth is concealed by the three steeds in front of him. The fourth rider is, however, visible. The riders are armed with long spears, two of which have square flags attached to their heads. The artist, to indicate the spirited nature of the horses, has shown them almost prancing in the boats. One animal is silver-grey, another bay, and another steel-grey. They are bedecked with tufts on their heads and ears, and have other ornaments on their chests. The boat is of a long curvilinear shape, decorated with carving along its upper board and at the bows. At the latter place a dragon's head is represented which exhibits clever workmanship. The long tongue of the dragon is shown protruding from the jaws in an ingenious style. Lower down, the paws of the dragon are also shown carved in the keel of the boat. Two oars may also be noticed along that side of the boat which is visible; there would, of course, be two more out of sight on the other side. Three more boats of the same design may be seen in front which are carrying elephants. There is only one animal in each boat. The size of the elephants appears too large in the painting compared with that of the boats in which they are being carried, the artist's idea evidently being to indicate the colossal bulk of the animals.¹ There are *haudās* (howdahs) on the backs of the elephants to protect the riders from the missiles discharged by the enemy. The riders of all three elephants, including Siṃhala himself, are shooting arrows at the forces of the demons which have assembled on the shore in front, and appear to be engaged in the fight. Quivers filled with arrows may be noticed attached to the sides of the howdahs. The pose of the *charkaṭā* sitting on the haunches of the pink elephant is very characteristic. His headgear with a tassel at the top is also worthy of notice. The *mahāvats* sitting on the necks of the elephants are watching the progress of the battle with considerable excitement, and one of them, in the middle, has turned his head away, evidently being horrified by the sight, or wishing to avoid some missile thrown at him by the enemy. The goads which they hold in their hands to regulate the movements of the animals are clear in the painting. Behind the elephants numerous banners and spear-heads can be seen, the staffs of which are evidently held by footmen marching side by side with the elephant-riders.

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¹ Griffiths on this point writes: 'These may be thought open to the criticism on Raphael's Cartoon of the Draught of Fishes, viz., that his boat is too small to carry his figures. The Indian artist has used Raphael's treatment for Raphael's reason; preferring, by reduced and conventional indication of the inanimate and merely accessory vessels, to find space for expression, intelligible to his public, of the elephants and horses, and their riders, necessary to his story.' The Paintings of Ajanta, vol. i, p. 38.

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It appears that the landing has already taken place, since both horsemen and footmen of Siṃhala's army can be seen near the right end of the fresco, where a fragment of the painting has peeled off. At the top, four warriors may be made out, one of whom, riding on a white horse, has been hit with an arrow in his abdomen and is bravely pulling out the arrow. Below, a green (silver-grey) horse has fallen down on his back, while his rider is held down by the animal's neck and forelegs, under which he has fallen. Near by, a demon has broken the lance of a soldier of Siṃhala's army, who is looking furiously at her. She has a viper entwined round her neck. At the back of this figure a soldier is threatening another demon with his sword. Below, near the bottom of the fresco, is yet another soldier who has been wounded in his belly, spilling out his entrails; he is pressing them back with his hands. On the left side of this soldier there is an ogress who has raised her hands as if to beg for mercy. Her hair and pendent breasts exhibit the artist's bizarre imagination. Close to this ogress there is a second who has seized the hair of a soldier with one hand and his wrist with the other. The soldier has evidently tried to attack the ogress with his sword. The features of this ogress show very exact drawing. Below, there are three ogresses, each in a different pose; one has placed her hands on the ground, another has joined and stretched them out in front, and the third is saluting. These attitudes suggest that the demons have acknowledged the military prowess of Siṃhala and are prepared to surrender. The facial expression of the second ogress suggests that she is appalled at the ferocity of her companions. Above, another fight is shown between a soldier of Siṃhala's army and a *rākṣasī*. The soldier is armed with a sword, while the ogress holds a large knife with a curved blade in her right hand, and to frighten the soldier she has raised her left hand as if she would either strike him or catch hold of his sword with that hand. Farther up, another ogress may be noticed who has placed her hands round the neck of a soldier with the intention of throttling him. The eyes of the soldier have bulged out in the struggle. At the top are three more ogresses, flying in the air with the object of attacking the elephant-riders. One of them in front holds a spear, the middle one has the trunk of a tree in her arms to hurl at the head of the enemy, and the third holds a piece of rock on the palm of her hand for the same purpose. All three show a threatening attitude, and are indicating with their forefingers and the wild gestures of their eyes the danger which lies ahead from Siṃhala's army. The ogress in front has, however, been hit in the forehead by an arrow (Plates LV, LIX *b*, and LX).¹

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¹ Among the weapons of war, circular rings or discoids, probably with very sharp edges, were thrown at the enemy in order to inflict severe wounds. They may be noticed in the portion of the fresco representing the army of the ogresses.

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The three episodes into which the subject is divided, viz. the march of the army, the crossing of the sea, and the fight with the ogresses, which are painted continuously, give a most vivid picture of the military expeditions of early times, both in regard to equipment and the arrangement of units. The weird element of the myth is fully shown in the uncanny figures of the ogresses, and although some of the detail may be conventional to a degree, the painting as a whole undoubtedly ranks amongst the greatest works of art in the world during the contemporary period.

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Immediately above the battle-scene the artist has painted the *Abhiṣeka* of Siṃhala, which ceremony would have preceded his formal assumption of the kingship of Tāmradvīpa, mentioned in the *Divyāvadāna*. Siṃhala is shown sitting on a throne, with the royal crown on his head and other state jewels round his neck, arms, and wrists. He holds a conical fruit (mango or coconut) in his right hand, the religious symbol of fertility. Two male attendants are pouring the water of consecration over his body, while two more hold fly-whisks in their hands. The latter have crowns on their heads and appear to be vassal-chiefs. In front of the throne are two groups of men and women, the members of the royal orchestra and some other palace-servants. The group on the right side consists of five men, two of whom are drummers and the other three stewards in charge of the royal household. One of them in front holds the royal apparel, the next on the right side has a tray in his hands containing articles of toilet and *pūjā* (worship) which are to be seen in flasks and beakers. Another steward, near the *chaurī*-bearer on the right side of the throne, is also holding a tray, which doubtless contained similar articles, but as the fresco has peeled off at that place the shape and the nature of these articles cannot be determined. Of the two drummers to be seen at the right end of the fresco, one holds an elongated double drum and the other a round instrument.

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On the corresponding side, towards the left, are five women, and one male figure who is playing on a drum. Among the five women three hold cymbals in their delicate fingers, and the remaining two are engaged in dancing. These two are wearing crowns of flowers on their heads. The most striking features of this scene are the graceful poses of the musicians and the artistic folds of their lower garments—the *dhotīs* which are worn by men, and the *sārīs* by women. The coiffures of the women are equally attractive, and the care which the artist has bestowed on the drawing of their soft, shapely fingers, arranged in different ways to express the sensitive nature of their sex, cannot but evoke the highest praise from the connoisseur (Plates LV, LVIII, and LX).

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It is extremely likely that in the celebration of the victory of Siṃhala over the ogresses the adoration of the miraculous white horse who helped Siṃhala in his escape from their island would have been an important ceremony. Accordingly the artist of Ajanta has painted a long scene in which the white horse is first shown ahead of a magnificent procession of elephant-riders and footmen, and is finally worshipped by a party of soldiers; the latter incident is painted on the rock-wall side by side with the representation of the lustration of Siṃhala (Plates LV, LVII, and LVIII *a*).

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The procession starts from the royal palace and passes through the principal street, some shops of which are represented in the fresco. One of them is probably a vegetable and fruit shop, since several pumpkins or gourds are shown hanging from the lintel. The second shop, on the right side, is not clear because the drawing here, owing to the breaking up of the fresco surface, has been destroyed. The next shop, farther towards the right, represents two women, one of whom is weighing something (?a bunch of bananas) in the scales, while the other is the customer (Plate LIV *a*).¹ Above, two elephants may be seen, one of whom is pinkish-grey and the other white.² Siṃhala (?) and another chief are riding on these elephants. They are sitting in *haudās* (howdahs) which hide their bodies. Quivers filled with arrows can be seen suspended along the sides of the howdahs, and as the attendants around and in front of the elephants are all armed, the procession offers altogether an impressive spectacle. The uniforms of the attendants differ: some are clad in long white coats, the majority in short jackets with half-sleeves, and a few in coats of ordinary size (medium). The complexion, features, and accoutrements of the soldier close to the trunk of the elephant, on the right side, are worthy of notice. Two sturdy attendants hold long staffs with triple banners immediately behind the miraculous horse. The presence of the banners imparts an additional air of majesty and dignity to the horse. The artist has further displayed consummate skill in drawing the portrait of the horse, showing his high breeding in the slender and well-proportioned legs, and his pride of race in the arched neck and dignified gait.

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¹ As the fresco has become very dark the shopkeepers and the wares of the shops are not clear in the reproduction.

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² Above the shops, to the left of the elephants, there is the figure of a dwarf conducting a person towards the council-meeting where the plaint of the ogress against Siṃhala was considered (*supra*, p. 88). This person may be Siṃhala, but as the figure is broken the identification is not certain.

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The figure of the horse near the end of the scene is also most imposing, and the artist, with a view to impressing the onlooker with the inner powers of the sacred animal, has given a certain brightness to his eyes which bespeak his joyous and benign nature. The horse is surrounded by a company of soldiers, who, as their steps suggest, are walking round him, and when they come in front of him in the course of their circumambulation they salute by raising both hands. Two soldiers, one of a fair complexion and the other ruddy, who have thus come in front, are saluting the horse in the same manner. Close to the ring of soldiers, on the right side, three persons have prostrated themselves on the ground in adoration. The *dhotīs* worn by the soldiers are of a striped material which may be silk, but the use of such stuffs combined with the ornamental folds and the decoration of the hair with flowers observed above (p. 82) betrays a kind of effeminacy particularly noticeable in the dress of a warrior. They are all, however, armed with swords, the blades of some being curved and others straight. Behind the horse a dark figure wearing a long white coat may also be noticed. He is probably the groom attending to the horse during the ceremony.

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Apart from conventional incongruities such as the dress of the soldiers or the decoration of their hair, the beauty of the line-drawing of the figures and the vividness of the entire composition are such as to engross the attention of the art-critic and prevent him from dwelling on minor faults.

Cites (4)

Jātaka — Pāli
Jātakatthavaṇṇanā — Pāli
Mahāvastu — Sanskrit
Divyāvadāna — Sanskrit