Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Indian Palaeography from about B.C. 350 to about A.D. 1300 c7.s4: § 9. — Details of the derivation

Indian Palaeography from about B.C. 350 to about A.D. 1300 c7.s4

Language
English

Contents

§ 9. — Details of the derivation

c7.s4.1

The subjoined comparative table illustrates the details of the derivation. The signs in col. I. have been taken (with the exception of No. 10, col. I, *a*) from EUTING’S Tabula Scripturae Aramaicae, 1892, cols. 6, 8, 9, 11 and 12; those in col. II, from the same work, cols. 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, and those in cols. III, IV, from plate 1 of this manual; and all have been reproduced by photolithography.

A. — Borrowed signs

c7.s4.t1.1

³ B.IS. III², 99 ff.; compare the more or less differing attempts of E. THOMAS, P.IA. 2, 147; I. TAYLOR, The Alphabet, 2, plate at p. 236 ff.; J. HALÉVY, JA. 1885, 2, 252 ff., Revue Sémitique, 1895, 372 ff.

c7.s4.t1.2

*Preliminary remarks.* — The changes of the Aramaic signs have been caused chiefly by the following principles: (1) by a decided predilection for long-tailed signs with appendages at the upper end, the foot being left free for the addition of *u*, *ra* and the Anusvāra, and by an aversion to appendages at the foot alone; (2) by an aversion to signs with heads containing more than two lines rising upwards, [22] or with transverse strokes through the top-line, or with pendants hanging down from it, — all of which peculiarities would have been awkward for the insertion of the vowels *i*, *e* and *o*; (3) by a desire to differentiate the signs which, altered according to these principles, would have become identical.

c7.s4.t1.4

No. 1, *A*, col. III, = *Aleph*, col. I, *a* (Saqqārah), with a cursive change of the head to a curve; the position and the size of the letter make a connection with the forms in col. I, *b*, or col. II, improbable. — No. 2, *ba*, col. III, = *Beth*, col. I, *a*, *b* (Teima, Saqqārah), with a cursive curve for the angle at the right; the cursive forms of the *Beth* of the papyri, [23] col. II, *b*, *c*, are further developed than the Kharoṣṭhī signs. — No. 3, *ga*, col. III, = *Gimel*, derived from col. I, or a similar form (compare col. II, and Euting, TSA. 1, *a*), with a cursive loop on the right and a curve on the left; similar loops are common in later ligatures, see pl. I, 33, 35, 36, XII; 34, XIII; and they occur even in *ja*, pl. I, 12, XII. — No. 4, *da*, col. III, = *Daleth*, derived from a form like that in col. II, *b*, which, according to col. I, *a*, occurs already about B. C. 600 on Assyrian weights. — No. 5, *ha*, col. III, = *He*, derived from a form like that in col. I, *a* (Teima), with the transposition of the pendant in the middle of the curve to the right end of the foot in order to facilitate the insertion of *i*, *e* and *o* (see preliminary remarks, 2, page 20 f., above, and below under No. 17). — No. 6, *va*, col. III, = *Waw*, col. I (Teima, Saqqârah) ; the papyri in col. II. show more advanced forms.

c7.s4.t1.5

No. 7, *ja*, col. III, *a*, = *Zain*, derived from a form like those in col. I, *a*, *b* (Teima), the left corner being turned upwards still further, whence the usual Kharoṣṭhī letter in col. III. is derived by omitting the stroke at the foot ; the papyri, col. II, show more advanced forms unsuitable for comparison. — No. 8, *śa*, col. III, = *Cheth*, col. I (Teima), the sound of the Indian *śa* being very similar to a palatal *xa*, as in the German *ich*. — No. 9, *ya*, col. III, = *Yod*, derived either from a form like col. I, *b*, or directly from one like col. I, *a* (Assyrian weights), with the omission of the bar on the right (see preliminary remarks, 1) ; analogous forms occurring in later Palmyranian and Pahlavi (E.TSA. cols. 21—25, 30—32, 35—39, 58). — No. 10, *ka*, col. III, = *Kaph*, derived by a turn from right to left from col. I, *b* (Assyrian weights, Babylonian seals, &c.), and with the addition of a top-stroke, in order to distinguish the new sign from *la* (No. 11, col. III) and from *pa* (No. 15, col. III) ; the signs of the papyri, col. II, differ entirely. — No. 11, *la*, col. III, = *Lamed*, a form like those in col. I, *a*, *c* (Teima) being turned topsy-turvy owing to the aversion to signs with appendages at the foot alone (preliminary remarks, 1), and the curved line being broken and attached lower in order to distinguish the new letter from *A*.

c7.s4.t1.6

No. 12, *ma*, col. III, *a*, *b*, = *Mem*, derived from a form like that in col. I, *a*, *b* (Saqqârah) with a curved head, by the omission of the transverse line and a rudimentary indication of the vertical standing originally on the right, whence comes the semicircular ordinary *ma* of the Aśoka edicts, col. III, *c*, still more mutilated on account of the vowel-signs ; the forms of the *Mem* of the papyri, col. II, are unsuited to be considered the prototypes of the Kharoṣṭhī *ma*. — No. 13, *na*, col. III, *a*, = *Nun*, col. I, *a*, *b* (Saqqârah), a later derivative being the *na* of col. III, *b* ; the *Nun* of the papyri, col. II, is again unsuited for comparison. — No. 14, *sa*, col. III, = *Samekh*, col. I (Teima), with transposition of the slanting bar to the left end of the top-stroke from which it hangs down, and with connection of its lower end with the tail of the sign, which has been pushed forward towards the left (see the figures in B.IS. III², 105) ; analogous developments appear in Nabataean (E.TSA. cols. 46, 47) and in Hebrew. — No. 15, *pa*, col. III, *a*, = *Phe*, col. I (Teima), turned from right to left to distinguish it from *A* ; in the more usual *pa* of col. III, *b*, the curve has been pushed lower down. — No. 16, *ṣa*, col. III, = *Tsade*, derived from an acute-angled form like col. I, *a*, *b* (Teima), with the omission of the second hook on the right (see preliminary remarks, 2) and with the development of a hook below the head, because the vertical was made separately ; the analogous *Tsade* of col. II, *b*, has been developed, because the right stroke of the head was made separately and drawn to the vertical.

c7.s4.t1.7

No. 17, *kha*, col. III, = *Qoph*, derived from a form like col. I, *a*, *b* (Serapeum) with the conversion of the central pendant into an elongation of the top-stroke on the left ; similarly, the pendant has been transferred to the right end of the letter in the Teima form (E.TSA. col. 10). — No. 18, *ra*, col. III, = *Resh*, col. I, *a*, *b* (Saqqârah), with complete removal of the angular protuberance on the right. — No. 19, *ṣa*, col. III, = *Shin*, col. 1 (Teima), turned topsy-turvy owing to the aversion to tops with more than two strokes rising upwards (preliminary remarks, 2), and with a lengthening of the central stroke owing to the predilection for long-tailed signs. — No. 20, *ta*, col. III, = *Taw*, derived from a form like that in col. I, *a* (Assyrian weights) or in col. I, *b* (Saqqârah), with the transposition of the bar to the top of the [24] vertical, as in col. II, *a*, the new sign at the same time being turned from right to left in order to avoid the resemblance to *pa* (No. 15), and being broadened in order to distinguish it from *va* and *ra* (Nos. 6, 18); the older form and the intermediate steps appear in *tha* (No. 20, col. IV, *a*) and *ṭa* (No. 20, col. IV, *b*) where the original *Taw* has been preserved, and in *ṭa* (No. 20, col. IV, *c*) where the bar stands at the top; compare below, B, 1, *c*, and B, 2.

B. — Derivative signs

c7.s4.t2.1

(1) Aspiration. — The aspiration is expressed by the addition of a curve or a hook, which probably represent a cursive *ha* (TAYLOR), and for which cursively a simple stroke appears; at the same time, the original *mātṛkā* is sometimes simplified. — (*a*) A curve or a hook is added to the right of the vertical of *ga* in *gha*, No. 3, col. IV, to the top of *da* in *dha*, No. 4. col. IV, *a*, and to the end of the second bar of *ṭa*, No. 20, col. IV, *c*, from which it rises upwards, in *ṭha*, No. 20, col. IV, *d* (properly *ṭho*). — (*b*) A hook, a curve, or cursively a slanting stroke, appears to the right of *ba* in *bha*, No. 2, col. IV, *a*, *b*, the head of *ba* being converted at the same time into a straight line and pushed somewhat more to the left, in order to avoid the identity with *ka*, No. 10, col. III. — (*c*) In the following aspirates appear only cursive straight strokes, added on the left in *jha*, No. 7, col. IV, and *pha*, No. 15, col. IV, and on the right in *cha*, No. 16, col. IV, *ḍha*, No. 4, col. IV, *c*, and *tha*, No. 20, col. IV, *a*, all of which letters show, however, additional peculiarities. In *cha*, the little pendant on the left of *ca* has been made horizontal and combined with the stroke of aspiration to a cross bar. In *ḍha*, the head of *ḍa* has been flattened into a straight line. *Tha* has been formed out of the ancient Aramaic *Taw*, No. 20, col. I, *a*, turned from right to left, and the stroke of aspiration continues the bar of *Taw* towards the right.

c7.s4.t2.2

(2) Linguals. — *Ṭa* has been formed out of the older *Taw*, turned from the right to the left, by the addition of a short bar, which in the Aśoka edicts usually stands on the right and lower than that on the left, as in No. 20, col. IV, *b*. In col. IV, *c*, the sign of lingualisation stands on the left, below the *ṭa* with the bar at the top. This form of *ṭa*, which appears rarely in the Aśoka edicts, must formerly have been common, as the *ṭha* has been derived from it (see above, B, 1, *a*). The *ḍa* of No. 4, col. IV, *b*, exactly resembles the common Aramaic *Daleth* in col. I, *b* (Teima) and may be identical with it. If the alphabet imported into India contained two forms for *ḍa* (col. I, *a*, *b*), both may have been borrowed, and the more cumbrous one may have been used for the expression of the fuller sound. It is, however, also possible that the *ḍa* has been formed out of the *da* of No. 4, col. III, *a*, by the addition of the bar of lingualisation, placed vertically on the right. The *ṇa*, No. 13, col. IV, *a*, is likewise derived from *na*, col. III, *a*, *b*, by the addition of a straight stroke going downwards; compare what has been said above, § 4, B, 4, regarding the use of a short stroke for denoting the change of the quality of a borrowed or derivative sign in forming the *AI*, *O*, *ña*, *ṇa* and *ṇa* of the Brāhmī.

c7.s4.t2.3

(3) The palatal *ña*, No. 13, col. IV, *b*, *c*, consists of two *na* (col. III, *a*) joined together (E. THOMAS), and illustrates the modern Indian name for *ña* and *ṇa*, which the Paṇḍits often call the big *nakāras*. The sign, which is really not necessary for a clerk's alphabet, has perhaps been framed only because it existed in the Brāhmī, the Paṇḍit's alphabet.

c7.s4.t2.4

(4) Medial vowels, absence of vowel in ligatures, and Anusvāra. — Long vowels are not marked, and a inheres, just as in the Brāhmī, in every consonant. Other vowels are marked by straight strokes. In the case of *i*, the stroke passes through the left side of the top-line or top-lines of the consonant; in *u*, it stands to the left of the foot; in *e*, it descends on the left side of the top-line; in *o*, it hangs down from this line, see *ṭho*, No. 20, col. IV, *d*; for further details see below, § 11, B. Joined to *A*, the same strokes form *I*, *U*, *E* and *O* (No. 1, col. IV, *a*—*d*). The absence of a vowel between two dissimilar consonants, except nasals, is expressed, as in the Brāhmī, by the combination of the two signs into a ligature, in which the second letter is usually connected with the lower end of the first. But *ra* stands invariably at the foot of the other consonant, whether it may have to be pronounced before or after it. Double [25] consonants, except nasals, are expressed by single ones, and non-aspirates and aspirates by the aspirates alone. Nasals immediately preceding other consonants, are always expressed by the Anusvāra, which, in the Aśoka edicts, is attached to the preceding *mātṛkā*.

c7.s4.t2.5

The non-expression of *a*, and the rules regarding the formation of the ligatures, no doubt, have been taken over from the Brāhmī, only minor modifications being introduced. And it seems probable that the use of straight strokes for *i*, *u*, *e* and *o* comes from the same source. For, already in the Brāhmī of all the Aśoka edicts, *u*, *e* and *o* are either regularly or occasionally expressed by simple strokes, and in Girnār *i* is represented by a shallow curve, often hardly distinguishable from a straight stroke; moreover, *i*, *e* and *o* stand in Brāhmī, just as in the Kharoṣṭhī, at the top of the consonants, and *u* at the foot. A connection of the two systems of medial vowel-signs is therefore undeniable, and that of the Brāhmī must be regarded as the original one, since its signs, as has been shown above, § 4, C, 1, evidently have been derived from the initial vowels.

c7.s4.t2.6

The notation of *I*, *U*, *E* and *O* by combinations of *A* with the medial vowel-signs is peculiar to the Kharoṣṭhī, and is attributable to a desire to simplify the alphabet. Among the later Indian alphabets, the modern Devanāgarī offers an analogy with its ओ and औ, and the Gujarātī with its એ *E*, ઐ *AI*, ઓ *O*, and ઔ *AU*. Several among the foreign alphabets derived from the Brāhmī, as *e. g.* the Tibetan, show the principle of the Kharoṣṭhī fully developed.

c7.s4.t2.7

The Anusvāra, which is used, as in the Brāhmī, for all vowelless nasals, is derived from *ma* (E. Thomas). In *maṁ*, No. 12, col. IV, it still has the full form of *ma*, but usually it undergoes cursive alterations; see below, § 11, B, 5.