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Elements of South-Indian Palæography, from the Fourth to the Seventeenth Century A.D. c5.s2.t1: A. Cēra

Elements of South-Indian Palæography, from the Fourth to the Seventeenth Century A.D. c5.s2.t1

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A. Cēra

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The Grantha, Modern Tamiḷ, Malayāḷam and Tuḷu alphabets all have their origin in the Cera character, a variety of the 'Cave character' which was used in the Cera kingdom during the early centuries A. D. From the third to the seventh century appears to have been the most flourishing period in the modern history of this kingdom; it then extended over the present Mysore, Coimbatore, Salem, Toṇḍaināḍu, South Malabar and Cochin. It was, however, one of the three great old Dravidian kingdoms and existed already in the third century B. C. What civilization it had before the period referred to, there is no information; nor is there the least trace as yet of any inscription before the early centuries A. D.¹ The existing inscriptions show that about the fourth or fifth century A. D. the rulers of this kingdom received the Jains with great zeal, and made most liberal endowments to them in the territory that constitutes the modern province of Mysore.

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¹ The history of the Cera kingdom is excessively obscure, and will, probably, always remain so. Like in most Indian kingdoms that have preserved an existence for several centuries, there were, in all probability, many revolts of feudatories and changes of dynasty; it is thus very little use to accept the "Kŏṅyudeśarājakkaḷ" as an authority, for it bears evident signs of being a very recent compilation from grants and local traditions most clumsily put together. It is translated in the *Madras Journal*, vol. xiv. pp. 1-16. The most important investigation (as yet) respecting the Cera kingdom is by Profr. Dowson (in *Journal of the R. A. S. of London*, vol. viii. and also printed separately).

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The Cera alphabet changed but little during a considerable time; the earliest and latest authentic inscriptions which are in existence, and which belong to a period of about four centuries, show very few innovations. Two varieties of this character must be distinguished; the first, which was in use in that part of the Cera country which constitutes the modern Mysore and Coorg up to the final end of the kingdom which was conquered by the Coḷas about 877 A. D., and which then fell into disuse being soon supplanted by the Western Cālukya and transitional characters; and the second, which was used in Toṇḍaināḍu (the neighbourhood of Madras) which was a feudatory of the Cera kingdom till about the end of the seventh century when it fell under the Coḷas. This last alphabet then became under the new dynasty the medium of introducing brahmanical culture to the Tamiḷ country².

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² In the third century B. C., the Açoka Edicts show that Keraḷaputra (*i. e.* the Cera sovereign) was one of the three great powers of the South. Ptolemy (2nd century A. D.) and the Periplus of the Red Sea (3rd century A. D.) prove (§ 34) that this was still the case. According to the former (vii., 1, 86) Karūr was then the capital. Hiouen-Thsang (about 640 A. D.) does not mention this kingdom, but under the name of the kingdom of Kŏṅkaṇapura (the present Kŏṅkaṇa-haḷḷi) he describes a part of it ("Pèlerins Bouddhistes" iii. pp. 146-9). The dynasty which the inscriptions mention extends from

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The earliest unquestionable inscription as yet known is that of which the alphabet is given in Pl. ii. and which has been published in facsimile in the *Indian Antiquary*¹; the date is about 467 A. D. A later inscription of the same dynasty is also given in the same Journal². Its date is, though not clearly put, as there is an obvious error of the engraver in omitting a letter in the date, beyond doubt. This runs (v. *l.* 8): "ashṭanavatyuttareshu ṭchateshu çakavarsheshv atīteshu". The ṭ in ṭchateshu is clear, and though 'sha(ṭ)' is entirely wanting, yet as 'shaṭ' is the only possible numeral it must be read 698 (=777-8 A. D.) The difference in character between the alphabets of the two inscriptions is so slight that I have not thought it worth while to give both.

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¹ Vol. I. The transcript needs some corrections. Jinālakke is clearly "for the Jinālaya" (Jain temple) and not "for the destruction of the Jains", as the whole inscription is Jain in style (cfr. the mention of the Vasus). I have been able to examine the original plates of this very valuable document, through the kindness of the Rev. G. Richter of Mercara.

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² Vol. II. 155 ffg. See especially Dr. Eggeling's remarks (iii. pp. 154).

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In Pl. xi. I have given the alphabet of a Cera inscription which, if genuine, would be (being dated about 247 A. D.) one of the oldest Indian grants known; it is, however, a forgery³. As nevertheless even forged grants have their value as evidence, if not of the early centuries A. D. down to the ninth, but it was probably in these later times a feudatory revolted against the older dynasty to which Açoka and the classical authors refer. The Mercara grant (Mr. Richter's) gives the kings as follows:

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³ The reasons are: 1. Č and bh open at the top as here do not occur before the tenth century.
2. U, kh, gh, ṅ and j are also modern forms of the letters, and of about the same date.
3. Subscript u is written in two ways, a practice comparatively recent.
4. The stroke in ph to distinguish ph from p is also late (about 10th-11th century).
5. The historical data contradict more or less those of other inscriptions.
6. The Çaka era was not used in S. India so early as the third century. In the fifth century it is very unusual.
7. Lastly (to judge from an impression) the plates are far too well preserved; the letters are all sharp and clear; this would not be the case if the grant was engraved in the third century A. D. There are other grounds, but these are, I think, sufficient for rejecting this grant.

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Kŏṅgaṇi Koṅgiṇi or Koṅguṇi (i.) The eighth king of the so-called chronicle! (about 350 A. D.)
Mādhava (i.)
Ari-(*i. e.* Hari)varmā (The grant *d.* 247 A. D. is attributed to him!) The true form of his name appears from the grants of çaka 435 (ii. *a*, 6.) "çrīmaddharivarmmamahādhirājasya," and less plainly in that of ç. 276 (i. *b.*, 2).
Vishṇugopa
Mādhava (ii.) in 454 A. D.
Koṅgaṇi (ii.) in 467 A. D.

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The Nāgamaṅgala grant continues:

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Durvinīta (? From 478 A. D. was reigning in 513 A. D.)
Mushkara
Çrīvikrama
Bhūvikrama
Prithivī Koṅgaṇi (? A. D. 727-777).
Rājmalladeva (?)
Satyavākya (987 A. D.) Mr. Kittel has edited 3 important Canarese inscriptions of this king of 780 (?), and 809 ç. s.; the third having no date (I. A. vi., pp. 101-3); I have photographs of these through his kindness.

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The great Inscription at Tanjore (11th century) mentions a Šēramān, but also a king of Karuvai (or Karūr) and a Govindacandra (king of Kannāḍa). There are, however, many difficulties about the genealogy and succession which remain to be cleared up. It would be well to term this 'the later Cera dynasty'.

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facts, yet palæographically, I allow this one a place. It shows the condition of the N. Cera character about the tenth century, which was then fast becoming assimilated to the Cālukya and transitional alphabets of the North. This was, no doubt, owing to the conquest of the Cera kingdom by the Coḷas in the ninth century, and the separation which followed between the two divisions of the Cera kingdom, that above, and that below the Coimbatore Ghauts. The first became assimilated to the northern kingdoms, the later had a new development under the Coḷas. Thus the old Cera alphabet of the North became superseded by the Telugu-Canarese, and that of the last developed into the Grantha-Tamiḷ. This tendency appears to have existed in the eighth century; the fall of the Ceras rendered it much more rapid. The chief distinction between the Cera and Cālukya characters is the tendency of the former to preserve the old subscript forms of **u** etc. when attached to a consonant, whereas in the latter these are gradually moved up to the right side of the preceding consonant.

Cites (2)