Indian Palaeography c15.s2: A I. The Middle Ganges Valley

Indian Palaeography c15.s2

Language: English

c15.s2.16 — 4 parts

A I. The Middle Ganges Valley

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The palaeography of this region falls into the following chronological categories:

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(*a*) Fourth century A.D. (Pl. X. 1).¹ The typical example of this period is the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudra Gupta. It has been fully described in the last chapter.²

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¹ For the list of the inscriptions and references see Bibliography at the end of the chapter, p. 204.

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(*b*) Fifth century A.D. Two varieties are seen in this period:

(i) Pl. X. 2 is taken from the Karamdanda inscription of Kumāra Gupta I and the Bhitari pillar inscription of Skanda Gupta, both the inscriptions showing influence from the Mathura region. The letters have distinct head-marks, which are either notched or triangular. Of the initial vowels a fundamental change is seen in the forms of *a* and *ā*. The left limb hangs down from the triangular head and ends in a hook open to the left, instead of a curve to the right as seen in the Allahabad inscription. The middle bar joining the two limbs is generally horizontal. The long *ā* has an additional hook attached to the right limb. These forms are the real basis from which the later developments in North India took place. They are also found in the early fifth-century inscriptions of Malwa and Rajasthan.³ Henceforward this form will be called the curved *a*. The form of *i* with a vertical and two dots on the left, as seen in the Allahabad inscription, continued here, but optionally at Bhitari we have the older form consisting of three dots—a practice also seen in the Mathura region. *U* shows a definite influence from Mathura in the bending of the horizontal tip—a practice already noticed in the inscriptions of the Kushāṇa period. No other initial vowels are seen here. In the case of the medial vowels the Mathura style of the Kushāṇa period is usually followed. Both medial *ā* and *e* are top slants, but in the case of *hā* the local style of the horizontal mark is kept. The medial *o* is made of two top curved slants, one going to the left and the other to the right, while a vertical mark is added to them to make the medial *au*. The medial *ai* has two top slants going to the left. The medial *i* has a curve to the left while the medial *ī* has it on the right with a prominent initial mark recalling the two verticals of earlier times. The medial *u* curves its horizontal downwards, except in letters such as *thu*, *pu*, *mu*, *nu*, and *su*, in which the old practice of prolonging the right vertical continued. The medial *ū* has either an additional curved mark or a horizontal mark with bent tip attached to the right or left of the vertical. The medial *ṛi* curves its horizontal mark to the right.

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³ See below, p. 156.

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As in the Allahabad inscription the right limbs of *ga*, *ta*, *bha*, and *śa* are longer than the left. The middle bar of *ka* is curved, while *kha* and *ga* have straight tops. The left vertical of *gha* still retains a slight curve. *Cha* is of the beaked form, while *chha* has the left loop smaller than the right. The lower limb of *ja* slightly bends down. *Ṇa* is of the open-mouthed variety, as seen in the Allahabad inscription. The old form of *tha*, a circle with a dot, is no longer found in this region. It is changed into an oval with a mid-line—a form only used optionally in the Allahabad inscription. *Da* has its curve open to the right, while *dha* has a straight top with its lower portion narrowing to a point. *Na* is of the looped variety as seen in the Allahabad inscription. *Pa* still retains the slight curve. *Bha* is of the angular variety. *Ya* has a loop at the left limb and is of the tripartite form, but optionally has its base divided into a slanting right half and rounded left half. *Ra* is a straight vertical and *va* is triangular. *Śa* has a rounded top while *sha* has a full length mid-line.

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Important differences from the Kauśāmbī style are seen in the forms of *ma*, which optionally has the half circle in place of the tail, found only in the Mathura region;¹ *la* and *ha*, which do not show the cursive hooked varieties of Kauśāmbī but have the three-limbed form with a firm base; and *sa* which has the older form with a hook on the left side in place of the looped variety of the Kauśāmbī style. All these forms are known in the Mathura region. Among the conjuncts we notice *ṅgi* and *ñchi*, the latter showing the cursive form of *ña*.

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¹ See below, p. 143.

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(ii) Pl. X. 3 is taken from the remaining inscriptions of Kumāra Gupta I, Skanda Gupta, and their successors, all of this period and found in this region. The plate is mainly based on the Bihar and Kahaum inscriptions of Skanda Gupta. This group of inscriptions carries the Kauśāmbī style further. The head-mark is distinctly triangular, though in a few cases it seems to be only notched. The initial vowels are of the same type as described in the above group (*b*) (i). We also find here the form of *e* which is triangular with its base at the bottom. The medial vowels follow the styles of both the Allahabad inscription and the Kushāṇa records. But specially noticeable is the form of medial *ā* in *dhā*, which is a curved sign attached to the middle of the right limb—a feature that recalls the practice of the eastern region. The medial *ṛi* now has a proper hook turned to the right. The medial *u* curves upward in the case of *gu* (optionally), *du*, and *bhu* (optionally). In the consonants the lower tips of the verticals show a faint trace of thickening, recalling the tendency to cursive flourish associated with the pen style. Other important developments from the style of the Allahabad inscription are seen in the greater use of the flat-topped *ga*, the straightening of the curved limb of *gha*, *pa*, and *sha*, the preference for *tha* with a mid-line within the oval form, *dha* with its lower end narrowed, the angular *bha* with a triangular head at the left limb, and the looped *sa* with an acute angle at the right limb. It should be noted that the oval *tha* is vertical when used singly and horizontal when used in a conjunct such as *sthā*.

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(*c*) Sixth century a.d. (Pl. X. 4, 5, 6). No. 4 is taken from the inscriptions of the Maukharis of Magadha. No. 5 is derived from the Amauna inscription, dated in the (Gupta?) year 232, and no. 6 from the Haraha stone inscription of the Maukhari ruler Iśānavarman, dated in the (Vikrama) year 611. There is a definite change in the palaeography of this period, as attested by the new types of the initial vowels and the use of ornamental medial vowels. If the forms of the initial vowels can be relied upon, this influence can be traced from the region of Malwa. The new changes can be studied under three heads.

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(i) *The general characteristics.* The head-mark in the inscriptions of the Magadha Maukharis is a thick line, in the inscriptions of the Kanauj Maukharis a solid triangle, and in the Amauna inscription a simple line. In all these inscriptions, except in the Amauna, the lower tips of the verticals show definite traces of the foot-mark.

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(ii) *The new types of the medial vowels.* The important change in the medial vowels is seen in the use of the ornamental forms, as given above. Here the pen style is clearly marked, not only in the thick and thin lines but also in the long flourishes either at the top of the letters or at the sides. The general forms are taken from both the Kushāṇa and the local systems. In the Kushāṇa style the slanting strokes of *ā* and *e* or the curved forms of *i* and *ī* lend themselves to easy flourishes. A special form is the twisted stroke of *e*, which is first seen in the eastern region¹ as early as the Susunia rock inscription of Chandravarman. The ornamentation in the inscriptions of the Magadha Maukharis is not so prominent. It should also be remembered that the simpler forms persist optionally. In the Amauna inscription only the simpler forms are found. The special curled form of the medial *ī* is to be seen in the inscriptions of the Kanauj Maukharis.

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¹ See below, p. 130.

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(iii) *The development of new forms.* In the initial vowels there appear altogether new forms of *i* and *e*. The initial *i* has two dots at the top and a third lower one with a curved tail, but very occasionally has two dots below with a top line. The first form becomes henceforward the standard type in this region. The initial *e* has the base of the triangle at the top and the head below, and its left arm slightly curves to meet the point. This form leads on to the modern Nāgarī *e*. Development is also seen in the form of *a*, where the lower hook at the left limb projects its two arms beyond the vertical line. The lower curve of the initial *u* is further prolonged. But in the Amauna inscription the old form of *a*, seen in the Allahabad inscription, persists. Of the consonants, *kha*, *ga*, and *śa* have flat tops, though in the Amauna inscription rounded tops are retained. *Gha* undergoes a fundamental change by the division of its base into two halves—the straight right half meeting the upright at an acute angle and the left half curving with the left upright. This form paves the way for the North India *gha* of modern times. *Ja* bends its lower limb still farther. The upper arm of the half-circle *ṭa* is flattened. *Ḍa* also slightly bends the lower leg. *Ṇa* henceforward has the open-mouthed form of the Kauśāmbī style, but the loop seen in the Gupta period is no longer found.

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Another development is seen in the inscriptions of the Kanauj Maukharis, where the base slightly slopes to the right and the outer curves are slightly prolonged. *Tha* henceforward copies the form of *dha* with an additional mid-line. *Da* has a double curve meeting at a point, the upper curve opening to the left and the lower to the right, the tip of the last being turned up. This form will henceforward be called the double-curved *da*. The looped *na* is found here, but in the inscriptions of the Kanauj Maukharis this loop develops into a head and is joined by a bar to the right vertical. No change is seen in the forms of *pa*, *pha*, *ba*, and *ma*, except that at Amauna the old open-mouthed form of *ma* persists. *Bha* has developed a triangular head at the bottom of the left limb, but the old triangular form of *bha* is seen at Amauna. *Ya* has three types: the first is the tripartite form with an inner loop at the left limb and the base divided into a straight right half and a curved left half—a development from the Kushāṇa type; the second has an outward curl at the left limb instead of the loop, a type also seen in the eastern region; and the third is the hooked *ya* (henceforward called bipartite *ya*), seen earlier as a subscript. That it is adapted from the old form, and not a new invention, is clearly observable in the varying forms of the same type in the Haraha inscription of Īśānavarman.

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The new development made in this hooked *ya* is in drawing the right limb, which now becomes straight and meets the base at an acute angle. *Ra* shows prominently the foot-mark in the form of a triangle. The hooked forms of *la* and *ha* known in the Gupta period are no longer followed. The western forms with a firm base-line are used. In the inscriptions of the Kanauj Maukharis the base of *la* slants upward, while the hook of *ha* is pulled down. In these inscriptions the old form of *sa* with a hook at the left is used optionally, but usually the looped *sa* is found, with the only change that the loop tends now to become triangular. Again the triangular form of *va* shows a development in the inscriptions of the Kanauj Maukharis. This triangle optionally turns into a round form but keeps the right arm straight. This will be henceforward called the rounded *va*. *Śa* generally has a flat top with a triangular foot-mark at the left limb. At Amauna the round-top form is seen and here the mid-line stops half-way. On the whole the forms clearly show that the Magadha Maukharis were earlier in date than the Kanauj Maukharis. Another point which is clear is the introduction of the new forms from the Malwa region, and it is not unlikely that these Maukharis originally came from Malwa, where they are known earlier from the Yūpa inscriptions.¹ (*d*) The last quarter of the sixth and the seventh century A.D. (Pl. X. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11). No.

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7 is taken from the Bodhgaya inscription of Mahānāman, dated in the (Gupta) year 269; no. 8 mainly from the Banskhera copper plate of Harshavardhana; no. 9 from the spurious Gaya copper plate of Samudra Gupta; no. 10 from the Aphsaḍ inscription of Ādityasena; and no. 11 from the Deobarnark inscription of Jīvitagupta. All these inscriptions, except no. 9 (which is a simplified version but crudely drawn), show ornamental medial vowels and the *kuṭila* (bent right vertical) form of the letters. The inscription of Mahānāman marks the beginning of this style of writing in this region. This style is a further step from the writing seen in (*c*) above.

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¹ See above, p. 92.

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Of these inscriptions the Banskhera plate is the most ornamental. The development is seen in extending the curve at the left limb of the initial *a*, the bottom tail in *i*, and the lower bend in *u*. In the inscriptions of Harshavardhana the tail of *i* is turned to the left, instead of the usual right, and *e* shows a notch at the top line. In the Aphsad inscription the unusual form of *e* with a top stem, also known in Bengal but more common in the Western Deccan,¹ is seen. The spurious plates of Samudra Gupta show simpler forms of *a* and *e*. The medial vowels are all ornamental as seen in (*c*) above.

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¹ See below, p. 166.

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Marked evolution is noticeable in the consonants. *Ka* retains the old form with the curved middle bar in *kra*, *kṛi*, and sometimes in conjuncts, but is usually seen in the new form with the curve on the left of the vertical growing into a triangular loop and the right curve developing a downward tick, which in due course lengthens into a bent vertical. We shall henceforward use two terms, the looped *ka* for the first and the *kuṭila ka* for the second. The flat-topped *kha* prominently shows the triangular foot-mark at the left limb, and the right limb has the hollow triangle on the inside of the letter. Sometimes the angles of this triangle are rounded. In the spurious Gaya plate this triangle is at the outer side of the right limb and here it opens its mouth, as in the inscriptions of the Pālas of Bengal.² *Ga* has both flat and round tops, the latter gradually merging with the *kuṭila* form of the right limb. In *gha* the acute-angled side is lowered and the curved side slightly raised. *Cha* is still of the beaked type, but is drawn in an ornamental style. *Ja* merges the uppermost arm with the head-mark, the middle arm is curved downwards, and the lowest bends into a hook, the whole giving a new look to the form. *Jha* still maintains the old form, with only this difference, that the middle bar slopes down to make an acute angle with the right limb. There is no change in *ṭa* and *ṭha*, but *ḍa* reduces considerably the length of its lower leg and its back is slightly rounded. The base of *ṇa* is slanted and the outer arms prolonged, but the two inner uprights come closer, and in conjuncts such as *ṇḍa* they actually merge together and form a tooth in the cursive type. In *tha* and *dha* the left curve slopes down beautifully to meet the bent vertical at the narrow end. Henceforward these will be called the bulged forms. The mid-bar of *tha* gradually shifts upwards. The double-curved *da* now has a tick at the tip of its lower curve. The head-form of *na*, as seen before, is now well established, but the right vertical now shows *kuṭila* features. *Pa* rounds its left corner and lowers its right vertical to meet at an acute angle with the base. Only in the inscriptions of Harshavardhana is its ornamental form to be seen. It is from this time onwards that the separate sign for *ba* is dropped and only *va* is used for both the consonants. The triangular foot-mark in the left limb of *bha* now grows in importance, displacing the left limb itself, but the right is further lengthened. In the Deobarnark inscription the triangle is open. The tail of *ma* disappears and a loop develops at this point, while the base slopes down to meet the right vertical at an acute angle. *Ya* is of the bipartite form with the right vertical bent, but the Bodhgaya inscription of Mahānāman still optionally has the left loop in the tripartite form. *Ra* develops a tail at the foot-mark. The base of *la* curves upwards, with its left hook developing a beautiful inner bend. The rounded *va* with the right vertical forming a tail is also seen here. The flat-topped *śa* takes on a new form in the inscriptions of the later Guptas. Here the top of the left limb curls into a loop and is then finally joined with the right limb. *Sha* follows the form of *pa* with an additional mid-line. *Sa* with the triangular loop, as seen before, is adopted here. Only as an optional usage is the type with the left hook seen in the Bodhgaya inscription and the spurious Gaya plate. In the inscriptions of the later Guptas this triangle opens. The base of *ha* curves and dips its angle at the right. In the late inscriptions a tail develops at this point, while the hook on the right falls in a graceful bend.

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² See below, p. 135.

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It may be noted that in the inscriptions of Mahānāman the *kuṭila* forms are not uniformly followed. They are invariably found in the inscriptions of Harshavardhana. The spurious Gaya plate is nearer in date to the inscriptions of the later Guptas, which are a step forward in the development of the *kuṭila* forms. The Deo-barnark inscription shows a few remarkable forms not seen in the earlier inscriptions. The plates¹ of the time of Śaśāṅka, dated in the (Gupta) year 300 and the Cuttack Museum plates² of Mādhavavarman, dated (Harsha) year 50, are in the style of the seventh century, but the medial vowels used there are not very ornamental.

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¹ *Epigraphia Indica*, vi. 144–5.

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² Ibid. xxiv. 151–3.

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(*e*) Eighth century a.d. (Pl. X. 12). The typical example is the Nalanda stone inscription of Yaśovarman, which marks an advance towards the evolution of proto-Nāgarī. The change is observable in the tails seen in *a*, *i*, *e*, *kha*, *cha*, *ja*, *tha*, *da*, *dha*, *pa*, *ra*, *la*, *va*, *sha*, and *ha*. The medial vowels have become almost standardized, with the exception of *ā* and *o*, which still optionally retain the old forms. In them the blending of the Kushāṇa and the eastern styles is now complete. Easily recognizable Nāgarī forms are *ka*, *kha*, *ga*, *cha*, *ja*, *da*, *na*, *pa*, *la*, *va*, and *sha*, with the only differences that here the head-marks maintain the triangular form and that the right limbs are bent. An important development is seen in *tha*, which makes a definite inner loop at the top of its bulged body and thus disposes of the mid-line. The main difference between this style of writing and the Nāgarī is that this inscription keeps up the taste for ornament, while Nāgarī prefers straight lines, and this style is first seen in Central India.³

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³ See below, p. 164.

Linked texts (3)

Cūra grant, time of Viṣṇugopavarman — Sanskrit
Ganjam Plates of Mādhavarāja, Gupta Samvat 300 — Sanskrit
Cuttack Museum plates of Mādhavavarman — Sanskrit