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Indian Palaeography c15.s5: B IV. Rajasthan and Central India

Indian Palaeography c15.s5

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B IV. Rajasthan and Central India

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This section is not confined to one homogeneous region. It includes the different geographical zones that lie between North India and the Deccan. Quite naturally, the style of writing was not uniform throughout this area. But as a whole it had one common feature in that it received cultural influences both from the north and the south. Here the two cultural traits often came in conflict with each other, and this clash of the cultural ideals of north and south is mirrored in the styles of writing of this area. Out of this conflict the area produced a new style of its own, which spread to the Gangetic Valley and changed the characters of the Deccan.

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In this section we confine ourselves only to the influence of the northern and southern characters and finally see how they evolved into a new style. The local writing of the Deccan showing square-headed letters will be dealt with in a subsequent section.¹ The nuclear zone in this area is Malwa, the influence from which on the one hand reached the desert area of Rajasthan, and, on the other, penetrated into the Vindhyan forest belt. In the beginning of the fourth century Malwa was strongly under the influence of the Deccan, and, as we have seen in the last chapter, the southern style is clearly marked in the two Bijayagadh inscriptions.² But towards the close of the fourth century a.d., with the invading forces of Chandra Gupta II, the Kauśāmbī style of writing was introduced here, as is attested by the Udayagiri cave inscription of Śāba Vīrasena. This style left its influence in the subsequent records. But the Deccani character was not ousted suddenly. In the inscriptions of the local rulers it survives right up to the end of the fifth century a.d. The next change is noticeable in the time of Budha Gupta and the Hūṇa ruler Toramāṇa. As the features associated with this change are first seen in this area, I have termed this style of writing Malwa or Rajasthani. These features are not seen in the inscriptions of Budha Gupta found in the Middle Ganges Valley and Bengal. Subsequently the inscriptions of Yaśodharman show a development of this same style. Further confirmation of this assumption comes from the Vindhyan belt, where the series of Khoh copper plates reveal a very similar style of writing. In the seventh century a.d. again influence from the Middle Ganges Valley reaches this region and ornamental characters or *kuṭila* forms begin to appear, as is attested by the Vasantagadh inscription. But the Rajasthani style continued to develop on its own lines and towards the close of the seventh century we meet with the evolution of proto-Nāgarī in the inscriptions of this period.

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¹ See below, p. 171.

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² See above, p. 93.

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This material is treated in three different groups:

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(*a*) The inscriptions of Malwa and Rajasthan. (*b*) The inscriptions of the Parivrājakas and the Uchchhakalpas. (*c*) The inscriptions of the Rāshtrakūṭas.

(a) The Inscriptions of Malwa and Rajasthan

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(i) Pl. XIII. 1 is taken from the Udayagiri cave inscription, dated in the (Gupta) year 106 (A.D. 425). It is a private record. The letters, which show a distinctly triangular head-mark, are boldly engraved, and some of the medial vowels, such as *ā*, *e*, and *o*, show flourishes and produce an effect not dissimilar to the Meh-rauli pillar inscription and the Bilsad inscription of Kumāra Gupta I. But the medial vowels are derived both from the north and the south. The northern features are marked in the top slants for *ā*, *e*, *o*, and *ai*, in the curved hooks for the medials *u* and *ū*, and in the medial *ī* which is turned to the right with an initial prominence. But we also find the horizontal *ā*, and the medial *i* has the circle of the south as well as the left curve of the north. Southern influence can also be seen in the medial *ṛi*, as applied to *nṛi* and *kṛi*, in the form of a round curve to the left ending in a curl. The initial *ā* introduces the new type, the earliest of its kind. It is from this that the later forms of the sixth century A.D. are derived. It consists of two vertical limbs joined by a slanting bar, the right limb having a curved tip, a southern characteristic, and the left limb having a crooked appendage open to the left. This is the beginning of the curved *a*. To this form of *a* a slanting stroke on the right is added in the southern fashion to make a long *ā*. The only other initial vowel used is *u*, the base of which is gently curved upwards in the southern fashion. But the consonants all show northern features. The verticals in *ka* and *ra*, the upper limb of *la*, and the vertical stroke for the medial *u* in *mu* and *yu* do not show any tendency to curvature. The flat tops of *kha*, *ga*, *ṭa*, *dha*, and *śa* again relate them to the north. In the same northern fashion *kha* has its triangular appendage on the inner side of the right limb, the right verticals of *ga*, *ta*, *bha*, and *sa* are longer than the left, and the left verticals of *kha*, *ga*, and *sa* show foot-marks; *cha* is of the beaked type; *ṇa* is of the open-mouthed type; the two limbs of *ta* meet above either at an angle or in a curve; *tha* has a dot within a circle; *da* is round-backed; *dha* has its lower end narrowed; *na* has two varieties—one with a curved base and the other with a looped one but with the ioop filled up; *pa* shows slight curvature; *ba* is rectangular; *bha* is of the angular type; *ma* is of the tailed variety; *ya* is of the tripartite form but the left arm is changed into a loop; *ra* has a trace of the foot-mark; both *la* and *ha* have a firm base with two uprights and a hook; *va* is triangular; *śa* and *sha* have a mid-line; and *sa* has a hook attached to the left limb. In the conjuncts we should note the forms of *ṅghi* and *sthi*. In *ghna* and *stu* the second consonants *na* and *tu* have been constricted, and not the first, as is required by the rules of grammar.

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(ii) Pl. XIII. 2 is taken from the Bihar Kotra inscription of Naravarman, dated in the (Vikrama) year 474, and from the Gangadhar inscription of Viśvavarman, dated in the (Vikrama) year 480. Pl. XIII. 3 is derived from the Sanchi inscription, dated in the (Gupta) year 131, the Mandasor inscription of Govinda Gupta, dated in the (Vikrama) year 524, and the Mandasor inscription of Kumāra Gupta and Bandhuvarman, dated in the (Vikrama) years 493 and 529. These two groups show the last survivals of the southern characteristics in this region. However, they have the head-marks in the north Indian fashion. The medial vowels are given in the southern style; the only northern influence that can be traced is in the top curved slants for *ai* and *au*. The distinguishing southern medial vowels are the circle-stroke for *i* and *ī*, the left rounded stroke for *ṛi*, a cursive form of the medial *o* in *lo*, and a curved tip in the vertical stroke of the medial *u*. The initial *a* maintains the curved form of (i) above only in no. 2, but no. 3 shows the older form with a hook attached to the left limb. The other initial vowels are all in the southern style. *I* has a curved roof above two dots, but in no. 2 the roof is doubled. The term roof-type of *i* will be used henceforward. *U* is of the same form as in (i) above. *E* has an upper stem with the corners of the triangle rounded. In no. 2 the stem is very faintly visible. *Au* maintains the ‘z’-form but with the angles rounded and an additional slant going upwards. Of the consonants no. 2 has some forms borrowed from the north, while no. 3 exhibits exclusively southern forms. No foot-mark is seen at the left limbs of *kha*, *ga*, or *śa*. In fact both the limbs of *ga*, *ta* and *śa* are equal, except in no. 2, where *ga* has a longer right limb. *Gha* is of the southern type with its left vertical bent. *Ṅa*, as seen in the conjunct *ṅgo*, has two arms with a straight vertical. *Cha* is of the beaked type as in the north. *Ja* has three straight arms attached to a vertical, but in no. 3 the vertical is bent in the southern fashion. *Ña*, as seen in the conjuncts *ñcha* and *jña*, is of two types—in the latter example it is of the looped variety, and in the former the usual type. *Ṭa* is almost a half-square. *Ḍa* in no. 2 has a bent leg, but in no. 3 has a squarish back. Both *na* and *ṇa* are of the looped type. *Ta* in no. 2 has an angle at the meeting-point of the lower limbs, but in no. 3 a curve. *Tha* is oval with a curved line within. *Da* is rounded in no. 2 but squarish in no. 3. *Dha* narrows the lower end in no. 2, but in no. 3 the old Deccani form is seen, with an arc on the left attached to the two arms of a triangle. *Pa*, *pha*, *ba*, *sha*, and *ha* have notches at the left arms. *Bha* is of the broad type. *Ma* is also of the southern type with a loop at the bottom and two strokes above. *Ya* is of the tripartite form but has no loop at the left arm. *Ra* has a curved tip, and *la*, when used singly, curves the upper end of the vertical to the left. *Va* is of the triangular type. *Sa* has a hook at the left and *ha* has a firm base. The *jihvāmūlīya* does not have the dumb-bell form of the north, but resembles the form of the southern *ma*, while the *upadhmānīya* has a cross within an oblong form. Thus southern influence persists throughout these inscriptions. It must, however, be remembered that this southern influence is all traceable from Gujarat and Kathiawad. These inscriptions show no trace of the new tendencies that were appearing in the extreme south. Probably it will be better to call these features Central Indian, as their source lay in the inscriptions of the Śātavāhanas and the Western Kshatrapas.

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(iii) Pl. XIII. 4 is taken from the Eran pillar inscription of Budha Gupta, dated in the (Gupta) year 165, Pl. XIII. 5 is derived from the Eran inscription of Toramāṇa, and Pl. XIII. 6 from the Gwalior inscription of Mihirakula. These inscriptions did away with the southern features from this region for good, and initiated new styles allied to the northern characters. All the medial vowels now follow the northern system. Remarkable is the change in the medial *ṛi*, which now curves to the right, as in the north. The medial *i* optionally extends its curve to the bottom of the letters, and the medial *ī* curves to the right. The initial *a* preserves the local curved type as well as the Gupta form, with its left hook having a graceful bend. The long *ā* is now made by adding a curve to the foot of the right limb. The initial *i* is also of the northern type with two dots above and a tailed one below. The initial *u* also has the northern form with its base curved downwards to the left. The initial *e* has a flat top and a narrow lower end. The right limbs of *ga*, *ta*, *bha* and *śa* are longer than the left, while the left limbs of *kha*, *ga* and *śa* have foot-marks. *Gha* has a variation at its base. *Cha* is of the beaked type. *Ja* has its three arms straight. The tops of *ga*, *ṭa* and *śa* are now flat. *Ḍa* has a long leg as in the north, while *ḍha* is round-backed. *Ṇa* is of the open-mouthed type. In the Gwalior inscription the inner arms of *ṇa* optionally almost coalesce. In Budha Gupta's inscription *tha* maintains the southern form, but in the Toramāṇa inscription it has the oval with the mid-line, and in the Gwalior inscription it is of the bulged form. *Da* is of the double-curved type, *dha* of the bulged form, and *na* of the looped variety. The curve at the left sides of *pa*, *pha*, *ba*, *sha* and *ha* is no longer seen. *Bha* is of the angular type, *ma* is of the tailed variety, and *ya* has a left loop in the tripartite form. *Ra* has a foot-mark, and *la* curls its left hook downwards, while *ha* has a gradual curve in its base line. On the whole these inscriptions preserve their distinction from those of the Middle Ganges Valley.

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(iv) Pl. XIII. 7 is taken from the Mandasor inscriptions of Yaśodharman, one of them being dated in the Mālava (Vikrama) year 589 (A.D. 532). Further influences from the Middle Ganges Valley are noticeable in these inscriptions. These give an ornamental character to the medial vowels. But the forms of the letters still maintain the individuality of this region. These forms show a development of the style seen in (iii) above. The head-marks are solid triangles, while foot-marks are present at the lower ends of most of the verticals. The new taste in the formation of the medial vowels is very clear. We find in them the effect of the broad pen showing an interplay of thick and thin strokes. The top slants in the medials *e*, *o*, *ai* and *au* prolong the strokes with twists and bends. The top slant of the medial *ā* curves on the right. Side by side with the usual left curve of the medial *i* we have also a new variety, which has a long loop inclined to the left. The medial *ī* is curved to the right. The medial *u* is a downward curve or a vertical extended downwards. For the medial *ū* an additional curve is given either on the right or on the left of the vertical. The initial vowels preserve the local types. The initial *a* is of the curved type with the two arms of the curve projecting beyond the left vertical. The initial *i* maintains the three-dot form, with two dots above and one below. *U* curves its base downward to the left. *E* is triangular with a flat top. *Au* is also in the northern fashion with its base curved as in *u* and another curled stroke going up from the mid-angle to the right. Of the consonants the upper curve of *kha* is still short, but a very faint foot-mark is seen at the left limb; *gha* divides its base into a sloping right half and a curving left half. *Ja* maintains its three arms on the right but slightly curves the tip of the lowest arm. *Ṭa* has a broad dot at the head and *ḍa* has a long leg. *Ṇa* is of the open-mouthed type, and *tha* and *dha* show slight bulges. *Da* is of the double-curved variety, and *na* has its head on the left. *Pa*, *pha* and *bha* are still angular. *Ma* loses its tail but bends its left vertical. *Ya* is also of the tripartite form with a loop at the left arm. *Ra* has a triangular foot-mark. Both *la* and *ha* have firm bases with their hooks beautifully curled. *Va* is triangular, and *sa* preserves the local variety with the left hook. *Ṅa* is frequently employed in conjuncts in place of *anusvāra*, e.g. *ṅsu* in place of *ṁsu*. *Ña* in *jña* is of the cursive form. *Tha* in *sthi* is horizontal, and *ṭa* in the conjunct *shṭa* has its mouth turned downwards. On the whole the inscriptions of Yaśodharman keep up the regional variety.

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(v) Pl. XIII. 8 is taken from the Vasantagadh inscription of Varmalāta, dated in the (Vikrama) year 682, and Pl. XIII. 9 from the Nagda inscription of Aparājita, dated in the (Vikrama) year 718. These inscriptions show some further influences from the Middle Ganges Valley. These influences may have come even earlier, but no better inscriptions are available to illustrate them. Here we find fully developed ornamental medial vowels and *kuṭila* forms of the letters. The head-mark is a solid triangle. The local forms, at least in two letters, *a* and *sa*, are still seen. The medial vowels need not be described as they are of the same type as those of the Middle Ganges Valley at this time. Among the consonants we find the looped *ka*, the curved *ja* with its upper arm merged in the head-mark, the flat-topped *ṭa*, the bulged forms of *tha* and *dha*, the head-form of *na*, and *pa* and *pha* with their left corners rounded. Notable eastern influence can be marked in the form of *bha*, which has a triangular foot-mark at the left limb; *ma* which has a closed loop at the left; *ya* which is of the bipartite as well as of the tripartite form with the outward curl at the left vertical; *ra* with the triangular foot-mark; *la* with its left hook turning in a beautiful curl; the rounded type of *va*; *śa* with a rounded top, which in no. 8 has its mid-line aslant; and *ha* with its base double-curved and the hook extended downwards.

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*Ba* maintains its usual form here, but in the East only the form of *va* is used at this time.

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(vi) Pl. XIII. 10 is taken from the Kanaswa inscription of Śivagaṇa, dated in the (Vikrama) year 795, Pl. XIII. 11 from the Buchkala inscription of Nāgabhaṭa, dated in the (Vikrama) year 872, and Pl. XIII. 12 from the Barah plate of Bhojadeva, dated in the (Vikrama) year 893. These inscriptions show a development away from the ornamental tendencies seen in (v) above, towards simplification. Nos. 10 and 11, which are engraved on stone, still have a touch of flourish, but no. 12, which is a copper plate, shows only simplified forms. This simplification is noticed to a greater extent in the copper plates of the Rāshtrakūṭas of still earlier date, as we shall see below. This fact may suggest that the copper-plate engravers of this region favoured a simplified style. The truth of this is borne out by the copper plates of the Maitrakas of Valabhī and the Chālukyas. The letters have a triangular head-mark in the stone inscriptions, but only a line mark in the copper plate. The *kuṭila* forms are preferred in the stone inscriptions but the copper plate has straight verticals and flat tops. The development of tails in letters such as *ka*, *ja*, *da*, *pa*, *ma*, *ya*, *ra*, *la*, *va*, *sha*, *sa* and *ha* is seen in both the styles. The forms in the stone inscriptions generally agree with those seen in the Middle Ganges Valley, and these need not be described again. But the copper plates show some new features. The medial *ā* has a long vertical on the right. The medial *i* and *ī* extend their curves downwards. The medial *u* has only a curved stroke, and the vertical form seen earlier in some cases is no longer used here. The medial *ū* also is a slanting stroke with a head to the left. But in the case of the medial *e*, *ai*, *o* and *au* the older style of the left horizontal stroke still continues optionally. In the initial *a* the two strokes attached to the left end are clearly seen and its right limb slants downwards to the left. The initial *i* has its tail curved to the left, while *u* does not have the head-mark. Remarkable developments in the consonants can be seen in the following: the top arm of *ja* is totally lost, and its second arm falls down from the head-mark while the third extends its curve to the left; *ṭa* has the head-mark; *ta* has an angular hook attached to the right limb; the bulged form of *tha* has an outer loop; *bha* and *sa* are of the open-mouthed forms. In the conjuncts the cursive form of *ña* and the constricted forms of other letters are notable.

(b) The Inscriptions of the Parivrājakas and the Uchchhakalpas

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Only copper-plate inscriptions of these rulers have been illustrated here, and these show only the simplified styles. On the basis of the head-marks they fall into two groups: (i) those having hollow triangles, and (ii) those showing notches or simple lines. In their forms influences from the Middle Ganges Valley are easily traceable. Similarly, the medial vowels adopt the northern fashion.

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(i) Pl. XIV. 6 is taken from the Poona copper plate of Prabhāvatī Guptā, which actually belongs to the Vākāṭaka dynasty, but is included here as it is the only inscription of the Vākāṭakas showing triangular head-marks. Pl. XIV. 7 is derived from the Majhgawan plates of Mahārāja Hastin, dated in the (Gupta) year 191. Similar triangular head-marks are also seen in the Sunaokala (Broach district) plates of the Gurjara king Saṅgaṇasiṁha, dated in the (Kalachuri) year 292 (A.D. 540).¹ The Poona plate shows a rather mixed style containing features both of the north and of the south. The influence of Kauśāmbī is seen in the longer right arms of *ga*, *ta*, *bha* and *śa*, the triangular foot-marks at the left limbs of *ga* and *śa*, the use of the open-mouthed *ṇa*, the oval *tha* with a mid-line, the looped *na*, the angular *bha*, the open-mouthed *ma*, the hooked *la* and *ha*, and the looped *sa*. The northern tendency is again seen in the curved types of the medial *i* and *ī* and the top slants for *e* and *o*. Southern influence is traceable in the curved tips of *a*, *ka*, *bha* and the vertical type of the medial *u*. The southern forms are observable in the initial *u* with its base turned upwards, *kha* with its short upper hook, *cha* with its broad body, *da* with angular back, the broad *dha*, *pa* and *ba* with their left sides curved, the tripartite form of *ya* without the loop at the left, *va* with a broad body attached to the right vertical, and *ma* in the conjunct *mrā*, obviously derived from the form with a base loop as seen in the Vākāṭaka records. On the whole the inscription clearly shows how with the political influence of the Guptas their writing style also influenced this distant region.

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¹ *Epigraphia Indica*, x. 74–76.

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The Majhgawan inscription does not show southern influence at all. Apart from the triangular head, the letter-forms are mainly traceable to the Middle Ganges Valley, but a few letters maintain their regional characteristics. Of these *la*, *sa* and *ha* are notable.

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Both *la* and *ha* have firm bases with two uprights and a hook. *Sa* has a hook on the left. The medial vowels are all of the same type as is seen in the Gupta inscriptions of the fifth century A.D. Other Gupta forms can be seen in *a* with a hook at the left limb below, the open-mouthed *ṇa*, the looped *na*, the angular *bha*, and the tailed *ma*. *Ya* has two forms, the tripartite with a loop at the left vertical, and the bipartite. The initial *e* has a flat top, but *ga* and *śa* have rounded tops. The initial *au* is unique, having a very simplified form of *a* with two additional curved strokes as in the medial *ū*. *Kha* has its upper hook short, and the base of *gha* is straight, while *cha* is of the beaked type. *Chha* is of the double-looped form. *Ja* has three straight arms attached to the left vertical. Both *ṭa* and *da* are angular but the two verticals of *ta* meet in an upper curve. *Tha* is oval with a mid-line. *Dha* is oblong. *Pa* optionally has its right arm bent, while the left side of *ba* is curved. In the conjuncts the notable forms are *ṅho* and *ṣṭhi*.

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(ii) Pl. XIV. 8 is taken from the copper plates of Hastin and Jayanātha, dated between the (Gupta) years 163 and 177, Pl. XIV. 9 is derived from the copper plates of Sarvanātha and Saṅkshobha, dated between the (Gupta) years 193 and 214, and Pl. XIV. 10 from the Arang plates of Bhīmasena II, dated in the (Gupta) year 282. These plates illustrate the change from the Gupta to the Malwa or Rajasthani style of writing. These inscriptions preserve the simplified style of the medial vowels and do not show the forms associated with the *kuṭila* writing, though the Middle Ganges Valley forms survive in the open-mouthed *ṇa*, the looped *na*, and the tailed *ma*, and bent right verticals are occasionally seen in *e*, *ga*, *pa* and *ma*. The acute-angled forms are not known here at all. The initial *a* develops the curved type but also optionally preserves the Gupta form in nos. 8 and 9. The initial *i* exists in the three-dot variety as well as the roof type in no. 8. The long *ī* is of the Gupta type with a dot on either side of a vertical. *U* curves its base downwards to the left, and *e* sometimes has a flat top or bottom. *O* is of the northern type with its base curved downwards. The left limbs of *kha*, *ga* and *śa* show the line foot-mark. *Gha* has a straight base in no. 8, but divides it in no. 9. *Cha* has the pointed beak as well as the broad type. The lowest arm of *ja* is slightly bent. *Jha* keeps up the angular form. *Ña* in the conjunct *jña* optionally is of the cursive form. *Ṭa* has a flat top, and *ḍa*, *ḍha*, and *da* have rounded backs. *Ta* is angular in some cases, and in others preserves the Deccani type¹ with a curved hook attached to the right of a sloping vertical. *Tha* is oval with a mid-line, but *dha* in no. 10 is of the bulged form. *Pa* rounds its left angle in nos. 8 and 9, but in no. 10 has a slight notch on the base line. *Ba* has a square form, and *ya* is tripartite with a loop added optionally at the left vertical. Both *la* and *ha* have firm bases with two uprights and a hook, but optionally their bases are rounded. *Va* is triangular with the base sloping. *Sa* has a hook attached to the left. The conjunct *lpa* has a common vertical for *la* and *pa*, and *ṭa* in *shṭa* has its mouth turned downwards.

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¹ See above, p. 67.

(c) Inscriptions of the Rāshṭrakūṭas

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Pl. XIV. 11 is taken from the Tiwarkheda plates of Nannarāja, dated in the Śaka year 553 (A.D. 631), and Pl. XIV. 12 is derived from the Samangada plates of Dantidurga, dated in the Śaka year 675 (A.D. 753), and the Paithan plates of Govinda III, dated in the Śaka year 716 (A.D. 794). As has been remarked earlier, these copper plates show only the simplified style, but there is a marked difference between no. 11 and no. 12. The first shows the influence of the *kuṭila* writing of the north and has short line head-marks, while the second illustrates the simplified copper plate style of Rajasthan, and here the head-marks cover the entire breadth of the letters. In no. 11 tails are not so well marked, except in *da*, but no. 12 has long tails in *ka*, *kha*, *gha*, *cha*, *ja*, *da*, *na*, *pa*, *ya*, *ra*, *la*, *va*, *sha*, *sa* and *ha*. The medial vowels are of the same type as those of the Barah copper plate analysed earlier, with only this difference, that the long *ā* is sometimes given in no. 11 only by a short vertical stroke on the right of the letters. The initial *a*, *ā* and *i* in no. 11 follow the forms of the Middle Ganges Valley, but in no. 12 are of the same type as in the Barah copper plate. The simple triangle of *e* in no. 12 has a flat top. *Kha* in no. 11 has its triangle outside the right limb and slightly opens its mouth, as is seen in the late forms of the eastern region.² *Ṇa* has the well-developed cursive form in no. 12, but *na* maintains the looped variety. Both *tha* and *dha* are of the bulged form, with *tha* having a loop on the outer side. Both *bha* and *sa* open their triangular mouths. These forms were obviously brought in from the north, as we saw in the Barah copper plate. The rounded form of *va* is used for both *ba* and *va*. *Ma* has a loop at the left angle and *ya* is of the bipartite type. *La* gracefully curls its left hook, and *śa* has a rounded top. *Ha* has a rounded base as well as a wavy curve with a tail. The cursive forms are very prominent in the conjuncts. The lower *ṭa* in the conjunct *ṭṭa* has its mouth turned downwards, as in the eastern region. On the whole these forms show a great advance in the direction of the development of proto-Nāgarī. It is quite obvious that the Rāshṭrakūṭas were responsible for introducing proto-Nagarī character in this part of the Deccan.

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² See above, p. 135.

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