Indian Palaeography c17.s3: Indo-China
Indian Palaeography c17.s3
- Language
- English
Indo-China
c17.s3.1
Apart from the Oc-èo seals already dealt with, the early inscriptions from Indo-China fall into two geographical zones: (A) Lin-i, and (B) Fou-nan. Lin-i has produced important early inscriptions, the exact dating of which has long been debated. These inscriptions can be divided into four groups.
c17.s3.2
A. (i) In the first group falls the badly preserved Vo-Canh inscription (Pl. XX. 1) which refers to a king called Śrīmāra. To this inscription have been assigned various dates ranging from the second to the fourth century a.d. The advocates of the earlier date point to the tripartite form of the subscript *ya*. But this form was preserved in Gujarat as late as the middle of the fifth century a.d., as is attested in the Junagadh rock inscription of Skanda Gupta (Pl. XIV*b*. 1). D. C. Sircar¹ argues for a later date, as the record is in Sanskrit. But this argument is hardly valid when it is realized that Sanskrit was generally used in the records of the Western Kshatrapas from the middle of the second century a.d. onwards. We will first analyse the letters before assigning a date.
c17.s3.3
¹ *Select Inscriptions*, Calcutta, 1942, p. 471, n. 2.
c17.s3.4
The letters have distinct head-marks, which are generally notched, but sometimes angular. The lower verticals of *a*, *ka*, *ra*, and the vertical type of the medial *u* do not end in curves. The only initial vowel used is *ā*, which has a hook appended below its sloping upper left side. The medial vowels are very instructive. The medial *ā* is marked both by a top slant as in *yā* and by a horizontal stroke as in *gā*. The medial *i* is a stroke curved to the left, while the medial *ī* has an additional initial prominence. The medial *u* in *ru* is a stroke sloping downwards, but in *stu* it is an upward curve going outwards. The medial *ṛi* is a left curve of the southern type. The medial *o* in *ko* has one of its strokes in the form of a top slant, but in *lo* it has the cursive form of the southern type. This mixture of northern and southern medial vowels points to the region of Gujarat and Malwa, where they were in actual use in the fourth century a.d. *Ka* has its central bar curved. *Ga* has equal arms with rounded and flat-topped varieties. *Ṅa* in the conjunct *ṅga* has its vertical bent. *Cha* narrows the loop on the left side. *Ja* is of the three-armed type, with its vertical slightly curved in the middle. *Ña* in the conjunct *ñcha* maintains its proper form with a hook on the right. *Ṭa* in the conjunct *shṭa* has a round back. *Ṭha* in the conjunct *shṭhā* makes a rough oval. Both *ṇa* and *na* have bent bases. *Ta* has its lower two arms meeting in an upper curve. *Tha* in the conjunct *sthā* has a dot within a circle. *Da* is round backed. The left sides of *pa*, *ba* and *ha* are bent. *Bha* is of the broad type. *Ma* has a triangular looped base with two slanting uprights. The tripartite form of *ya* has its third left arm replaced by a loop, but in the conjuncts the three uprights of this form are well preserved. *Va* has a triangular loop below a stem, and *sa* a hook on the left.
c17.s3.5
On the basis of these mixed features it is difficult to connect the script with any particular style of writing in India. The absence of curves at the lower ends of the verticals would point to North India, but this feature was also known in Malwa (Pl. XIII. 1, 2; Pl. IX. 6, 7). The equal arms of *ga*, the broad type of *bha*, the looped base of *ma*, the curved bases of *ṇa* and *na*, the left curved stroke of the medial *ṛi*, and the cursive form of the medial *o* in *lo* would connect this with the southern scripts, but all these features were also known in Central India in the fourth to fifth century A.D. The form of *ya* used here is known only from Malwa at this time. When we know that the writings of Malwa and Gujarat were connected in the fourth century A.D., because of the rule of the Western Kshatrapas, it is reasonable to suggest that the style of writing originating from this region affected the Vo-Canh inscription. The cursive form of *lo* suggests that the dating must be between the latter half of the fourth and the first half of the fifth century A.D. The use of the Sanskrit language in this inscription is well explained by contact with Gujarat.
c17.s3.6
(ii) This group includes three inscriptions—the Myson inscription of Bhadravarman (Pl. XX. 2), the Hon-Cuc inscription (Pl. XX. 3), and the Cho-Dinh inscription of Dharmamahārāja Bhadravarman (Pl. XX. 4). All these inscriptions are characterized by the square or rectangular head-marks added to the top left of the verticals. This square mark is also seen over *ga*, *tha*, *dha* and *śa*, but not over *kha*. In style there is a close connexion between these inscriptions and that from Vo-Canh, the main difference being in the head-marks. The square head-marks of these inscriptions have also given angularity to the forms of the letters. As in the Vo-Canh inscription, the lower ends of the verticals do not curve, but show a sharp cut-end, especially in the Myson inscription. The medial vowels are of the same type. We may also note the additional medial *au*, which is of the curved variety of the south. These features link this square headed type with the Deccani style of Malwa (Pl. XV. 3). Other links with Gujarat are seen in the forms of *i*, which is of the roofed type; *u*, which has its lower horizontal curved upwards; *kha*, with a broad looped base; the broad type of *cha*; *ja* having its upper curve smaller than the lower; the looped varieties of *na* and *na*; and *śa* having a short mid-stroke attached to its right arm. The invariable use of the hooked variety of the subscript *ya* suggests that the date of these inscriptions should be placed slightly later than that from Vo-Canh. The middle fifth century A.D. would be the earliest possible date for them. In the Cho-Dinh inscription we get the looped variety of *ta*, which is first seen in the late Śātavāhana records in India. Henceforward the looped varieties of *ta*, *na* and *ṇa* become common in South-east Asia. This northern link of these inscriptions is further confirmed by the title *Dharma-mahārāja* adopted by Bhadravarman—a title obviously borrowed from the Vākāṭakas.¹
c17.s3.7
¹ D. C. Sircar, *Select Inscriptions*, Calcutta, 1942, p. 407.
c17.s3.8
(iii) In this group is included the earliest Cham inscription from Dong-Yen-Chau (Pl. XX. 5). It is connected with the second group by its square head-marks and the use of similar medial vowels, except the medial *o*, which here has horizontal strokes, but the medial *au* in *tau* is of the northern variety of three distinct strokes. The letters also are of the same forms with one fundamental difference, that here the lower ends of the verticals are curved. As this style was known in Gujarat and Malwa, there is no reason to look for another source for it. The inscription may be dated to the latter half of the fifth century A.D.
c17.s3.9
(iv) In this group falls the Myson inscription of Śambhuvarman (Pl. XX. 6). Its style is much later and is connected with the early inscriptions from Fou-nan. It will be discussed along with them. B. The early inscriptions from Fou-nan can be divided into three main groups:
c17.s3.10
(i) In this group are included three series of inscriptions: Pl. XX. 7 is taken from Thap Muoi inscription of Guṇavarman; Pl. XX. 8 is derived from Ta Prohm inscription of Rudravarman, with which also agrees the Neak Ta Dambhang Dek inscription of Jayavarman² and the Myson inscription of Śambhuvarman; and Pl. XX. 9 is taken from the Tham Prasat inscription of Mahendravarman and the Phnom Banteai Neang inscription of Bhavavarman. No. 9 represents the latest in the series. There is a marked difference in the style of writing noticed in these inscriptions from that of group A. In these inscriptions only line head-marks are seen, and the influence of stylus writing is noticeable in the frequency of the notches or waves in the lines. The medial vowels are entirely southern. It is further possible to localize the origin of these medial vowels to one of the proto-regional scripts of South India. The most distinctive are the circle-type of the medial *i* and *ī* and the broad curved type of the medial *u*. These are invariably found in the Pallava records beginning from the sixth century A.D. onwards (Pl. XVIII. 5, 6). In the Kadamba records they are used optionally, while the Gorantla plate of Attivarman (Pl. XVII. 11) shows them as an influence from the Pallavas. Other medial vowels show much local development. The medial *ā* has an exceptionally long vertical, as can be seen in *sā* and *hā*, the medial *e* drops down and ends in a curl, while the medial *ai* has one stroke on the top and another below the letter, as in *lai*. No. 9 has a new type of medial *o* in *no*. It has one top stroke on the right and a lower sloping one on the left. The broad type of the medial *u* is applied not only to *bhu* and *gu* as in the Pallava records, but also to *tu*. No. 9 also shows a new type of the medial *ū* in *bhū*, which has a double curved stroke attached to its right vertical. Of the initial vowels we get only *a* and *e*. *E* has a stem over its foot-form. *A* is of two varieties: one with a small curve at the lower end of the right vertical, as in no. 7, and the other with an extended curve, as in no 8. This difference is also maintained in the case of *la*, no. 7 having a small upward curve and no. 8 showing an extended curve. This extension of the curve in no. 8 suggests the continuation of the influence from the western coast. This influence is also to be seen in the recurrence of the looped varieties of *ṇa*, *na* and *ta*, the broad looped base of *kha*, and the narrow upper ends of *tha* and *dha*. However, it should be noted that the looped varieties of *ṇa*, *na* and *ta* were fairly well known on the eastern coast as well. The study of the consonants shows a gradual development of the letters from 7 to 9. The lower curve of no. 9 is extended farther, while *ra* in nos. 8 and 9 has doubled its vertical. *Ga* in no. 9 is of the horseshoe type. All three arms of *ja* are waved. *Ṇa* in no. 9 has double loops as in the Pallava records (Pl. XVIIIa, 9, 11). Another remarkable development in the looped *ṇa* and *na* is seen in their right-hand hooks, which are now turned up. The cursive form of the medial *o* in *lo* is extended below the letter. Other distinguishing forms are those of *śa* and *sha*, which have short mid-strokes attached to the right verticals and are definitely derived from the Pallava records. The same is true in the case of the subscript *sha* in *ksha*. The hooked type of the subscript *ya* has an ornamental bulge on the left. On the whole the writing shows highly ornamental forms ultimately traceable to the style known from the Pallava records of the sixth century A.D.
c17.s3.11
² *Journal of the Greater India Society*, iv, no. 2, pp. 117–21.
c17.s3.12
(ii) This is an intermediate group represented by the Han Chey and Phnom Prah Vihar inscriptions of Bhavavarman (Pl. XX. 10). It is distinguished by three features. The ornamental forms of the earlier group continue here side by side with a tendency towards simplification, seen optionally adopted in the forms of *ka* and *la*, both of which discard the superfluous curve. New forms are seen in *a*, which develops a left turn at the lower hook—a practice which recalls the fifth- to sixth-century forms from Malwa (Pl. XIII. 2–7). The form of *i* with a tail below a double curved roof also comes closer to the Malwa type. Another northern type is seen in the open-mouthed form of *ṇa*. The northern forms are also seen in the medial *i* and *ī*, which have extended curves on the left and right respectively. The medial *ū* in *gū* and *bhū* shows the new double curved form, though the Pallava form of the broad curved type is seen in *tu*. The medial *ṛi* in *kṛi* makes a broad curve to the right. The origin of these northern features is traceable in the records of the Gurjaras of Broach (Pl. XVI. 9, 10). The date of these inscriptions lies midway between group (i) above and group (iii) below, the latter being dated in the Śaka era corresponding to A.D. 624–67. Hence (ii) may be dated towards the close of the sixth century A.D.
c17.s3.13
(iii) This is the last group of inscriptions dealt with here. Pl. XX. 11 is taken from the Bayang inscription, dated A.D. 604 and 624, and the Vat Chakret inscription of Īśānavarman. Of these the latter shows the simplified version of the writing. Pl. XX. 12 is taken from the Ang Pou inscription of the time of Īśānavarman and the Ang Chumnik inscription, dated A.D. 628. Pl. XX. 13 is derived from the Ang Chumnik inscription of Jayavarman, dated A.D. 667. In this group the two new tendencies seen in (ii) are more clearly brought out. The northern forms of the letters all continue here. The simplification is further marked in the forms of *ka* and *la*, where all the verticals are reduced to equal height—a tendency that may also be seen in the doubling of the vertical of *ra*. A new feature seen in nos. 12 and 13 is the development of an optional loop at the left corners of the open-mouthed *ṇa*, *la* and *kha*. The extended curves are also sometimes seen, as in *a*, the medial *ā* in *jā* and *ṇā*, and the cursive *o* in *lo*. The right hook of *ña* in *jña* is extended downwards. The medial *ū* in *bhū* and *gū* is generally of the double-curved type, though the broad curve of the Pallava style is also occasionally seen. The medial *ā* in *yā* is attached to the third right vertical instead of the middle one. The medial *o* now becomes standardized with one top stroke on the right and another stroke turned downwards on the left. The curve of the medial *au* is extended downwards. On the whole the tendency towards linear simplification becomes more and more pronounced in this series of inscriptions. This tendency affects the development of the later regional scripts.