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Early Tamil Epigraphy: From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. c23.s11: 4.9 Evidence of Jainism in Tamil-Brāhmī and Early Vaṭṭeluttu inscriptions

Early Tamil Epigraphy: From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. c23.s11

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4.9 Evidence of Jainism in Tamil-Brāhmī and Early Vaṭṭeluttu inscriptions

4.9.1 Jaina character of the inscriptions: a statistical study

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The earlier speculations about the nature of the religion associated with the Tamil caves have now been set at rest with the complete decipherment of the Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions. There is no longer any doubt that the Tamil-Brāhmī cave inscriptions are mostly associated with the Jaina faith (see Table 4.¹). Out of 30 sites with 89 Tamil-Brāhmī cave inscriptions included in the present Corpus, 28 sites with 84 inscriptions are Jaina and the remaining 2 sites with 5 inscriptions are secular, that is, having no apparent religious significance. The position is somewhat different in the case of the Early Vaṭṭeluttu inscriptions included in the Corpus. Out of 12 sites with 21 inscriptions, only 4 sites with 12 inscriptions are Jaina; the Pillaiyarpatti rock-cut shrine with one inscription is affiliated to Vedic (Brahmanical) Hinduism; and the remaining are secular records.

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| Tamil-Brāhmī (ca. 2nd cent. B.C.- 4th cent A.D.) | Tamil-Brāhmī (ca. 2nd cent. B.C.- 4th cent A.D.) | Early Vaṭṭeluttu (ca. 5th & 6th cent. A.D.) | Early Vaṭṭeluttu (ca. 5th & 6th cent. A.D.) | Total | Total |
| Sites | Inscrs. | Sites | Inscrs. | Sites | Inscrs. |
| Jaina 28 | 84 | 4 | 12 | 32 | 96 |
| Hindu -- | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| Secular 2 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 13 |
| Total 30 | 89 | 12 | 21 | 42 | 110 |

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Table 4.¹. Religious association of Early Tamil inscriptions in the Corpus.

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¹ See section 3.2.4 for discussion on the influence of Old Kannada on Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions.

4.9.2 Jaina terminology

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Some of the key words in the inscriptions which help us to have a glimpse of the early phase of Jainism in the Tamil country are discussed below.

4.9.3 Titles of monks

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(i) *kaṇi

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The expression *kaṇi* (Pkt. *gaṇi* < Skt. *gaṇin*) ' a senior Jaina monk, the head of a *gaṇa*' occurs four times at Mangulam (Nos. *1-4*, ca. 2nd century B.C.) and twice at Alagarmalai (No. *48*, ca. 1st century B.C.). While many terms like *ācārya*, etc., are common to the Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina religions, the expression *gaṇin* is peculiar to Jaina hierarchy.¹ Thus, the occurrence of this term in Early Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions is conclusive evidence of the occupation of the caves by monks of the Jaina faith.

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¹ S.B. Deo 1956: pp. 149-150.

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We learn from the Mangulam inscriptions (Nos. *1-3*) that Kaṇi Nanta-siri (Gaṇi Nanda-śrī) was the senior Jaina monk who received the endowments of three hermitages from the kinsmen, vassals or officers of Neṭuñceḻiyan, the reigning Pāṇṭiya king. The inscriptions bear testimony to the support that the Jaina faith received from the Pāṇṭiya king, his court and the local merchant guild (*nikama* < *nigama*) at this early period.

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The given name or clan name of the senior Jaina monk was Kuvaṉ, revealing his Tamil origin. This is a significant fact. For, if a native Tamil ascetic could have risen in the Jaina monastic hierarchy to occupy the position of a *gaṇi* ('head of a *gaṇa*') at this time, then Jainism must have taken root in the Tamil country much earlier, that is, not later than the earlier half of the 3rd century B.C.

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(ii) *amaṇaṉ

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The expression is derived from Ta. *camaṇa* < Pkt. *samaṇa* < Skt. *śramaṇa* 'an ascetic or monk of non-Vedic religions (Ājīvika, Buddhist or Jaina)'. However, in the Tamil tradition, the term is exclusively applied to the Jaina monks indicating that the Jaina *samaṇa* monks reached the Tamil country earlier and that the Buddhist monks who came later had to be given other appellations like *cākkiyar*, *tērar*, *puttar*, etc., to distinguish them from the Jaina ascetics.

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The term *amaṇaṉ* occurs first at Mettuppatti (No. *24*, ca. 2nd century B.C.). This inscription records the gift of Utayaṇaṉ (Udayana) to Attiraṉ, the Jaina monk from Matirai (Madurai). The occurrence of the word in a Tamil-Brāhmī inscription of the 2nd century B.C. proves that Jainism had spread to the Tamil country before that date. The linguistic testimony furnished by this word goes further. The use of the evolved form *amaṇaṉ* (formed by the loss of the initial *c* in *camaṇaṉ*) shows that the word must have been borrowed into Tamil much earlier to allow sufficient time for the linguistic assimilation and evolution *samaṇa* > *camaṇa* > *amaṇa*. On the basis of this evidence, we may date the spread of Jainism to the Tamil country at least to the 3rd century B.C., if not earlier.

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The variant form *amaṇṇaṉ* occurs in two later inscriptions from Pugalur (Nos. **61 & 62**, ca. 2nd century A.D.). The inscriptions record the construction of a rock shelter for Ceṅkāyapaṉ, a senior Jaina monk, by King Ātaṉ Cel Irumporai to mark the occasion of the investiture of his grandson as the heir apparent (*iḷaṅkō*). The Pugalur inscriptions (Nos. **61-72**, ca., 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D.) attest to the support of Jainism by the Cēra king, his court and by the merchant community.

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(iii) ***upacaṉ***

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The expressions *upacaṉ* at Tiruvadavur (No. **9**) and its variant form *upaca-aṉ* at Kilavalavu and Kongarpuliyankulam (Nos. **10 &11**) dated to ca. 2nd century B.C. are derived from Skt. *upādhyāya* 'spiritual teacher' through Pkt. *upajhaya*, *uvajha*, etc.; cf. Ka. *uvajjara* and Ta. *uvaccaṉ* 'teacher'.¹

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¹ See discussion on *uvaccaṉ* in the Commentary (9.1).

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The *upādhyāya* is venerated as one of the Pañca-paramēshṭhin (along with Arhat, Siddha, Ācārya and Muni) by the Jainas. In the Tamil Jaina tradition, the *upādhyāya* is a lay teacher of scriptures. He functions as the priest in the local Jaina temple and also conducts religious ceremonies in Jaina households. In course of time, with the waning of Jaina influence in the Tamil country, the Uvaccar became priests in the shrines of *piṭāri* (< *bhaṭāri*, originally Jaina) and other village goddesses. Still later, they figure as temple-drummers, dance-masters and musicians in medieval inscriptions.

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(iv) ***patantaṉ***

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The expression *patantaṉ* occurs as the title of a Jaina monk at Anaimalai (No. **60**, ca. 2nd century A.D.). It corresponds to Pkt. *bhadanta* 'venerable, reverend'. A variant form *bhadata* occurs as the title of a Jaina monk in an early Prakrit inscription from Mathura.² The variant forms *bhadamta* and *bhayaṁta* are attested in Jaina Prakrit works.

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² E.g., G.Bühler 1894a, *EI*. II: p. 199, No. IV.

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(v) ***att(a)vāyi***

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The expression *attuvāyi* in the Anaimalai inscription (No. **60**, ca. 2nd century A.D.) is obscure, with most of the authorities choosing to regard it as a personal name. However, it appears to be a title as it is prefixed to a personal name, most probably that of a Jaina monk. The word is probably to be read as *attavāyi*; the scribal error appears to be due to stress on the first syllable in the original Prakrit. The first part of the name is from Pkt. *attha* < Skt. *artha* 'meaning', and the second part from Pkt. *vāyi* < Skt. *vācin* / *vādin* 'one who reads / expounds'. The whole expression *attavāyi* may be interpreted as 'one who expounds the meaning (of scriptures)'; cf. AMg. *atthavāya* 'disputation of meaning' (*PSM*); *vācaka* / *vāyaka* 'preacher' occurring in Prakrit inscriptions.¹

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¹ I acknowledge my indebtedness to Pūjya Śrī Ārjavasāgar Muni, the distinguished Digambara Jaina monk, for the interpretation. Also see Commentary (60.6).

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(vi) *ācāriyar*

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The expression *ācāriyar* and the variant form *ācirikaru* < Skt. *ācārya* 'preceptor' occur as the titles of senior Jaina monks in the Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscriptions at Paraiyanpattu and Tirunatharkunru respectively (Nos. *115* & *116*, ca. 6th century A.D.).

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In the Jaina monastic tradition, especially the Digambara, *ācārya* is a title accorded to very senior monks who are considered to be superior to the *upādhyāya* in the list of the Five Dignitaries (*pañca-paramēshṭhin*) worshipped daily by the Jainas.

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(vii) *māṇākkar*

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The term literally means 'student' (honorific singular), but occurs at Paraiyanpattu (No. *115*, ca. 6th century A.D.) as a Jaina technical term with the specialised meaning of 'acolyte or disciple' of a senior Jaina monk. In later Jaina inscriptions as at Kalugumalai (Tirunelveli District), the expressions *māṇākkar* (masc.) and *māṇākkiyar* (fem.) occur in this sense.

4.9.4 Titles of nuns

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(i) *pa(m)mitti*

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The expression *pa(m)mitti* occurs at Alagarmalai (No. *41*, ca. 1st century B.C.) as the title of a Jaina nun named Sapamitā (from Pkt. *sappamittā* < Skt. *sarpamitrā*). The term *pammi-tti* appears to be the feminine gender form of *pammaṉ* (masc.) 'Jaina novice'.² The expressions are ultimately derived from Pkt. *bamma* < Skt. *brahma* / *brāhmī*.

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² *Aruṅkala*. 168. See Commentary (41.3) for further references.

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(ii) *kanti*

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Cē-k-kant(i)-aṇṇi and Cē-k-kanti, mother and daughter, figure in the inscription at Nekanurpatti (No. *83*, ca. 4th century A.D.). Both are Jaina nuns as may be seen from the suffixed title *kanti*. The term *kanti* is attested as a personal name or title of Jaina nuns in Tamil literary works. The variant form *kavunti* occurs as the personal name of a senior Jaina nun.³

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³ *Cilap.* 10: 165, 211, etc. See Commentary (83.2.b) for discussion.

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The term *kanti* (variants *khanti*, *ganti*) occurs in Kannada inscriptions as an affix to the personal names of Jaina nuns. The expression is probably derived from *gaṁthi* (AMg.) 'one who composes a literary work' (*PSM*) < *grantha* (Skt.) 'book'.

4.9.5 Names of Jaina monks and nuns

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The following are the names of Jaina monks and nuns occurring in the inscriptions included in the Corpus. Their titles are added after the names within brackets (*vide* Inscriptional Glossary for references).

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*Monks*

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| 1. | Attiraṉ (*amaṇaṉ*) | 8. | Ceṅkāyapaṉ (*mutā amaṇṇaṉ*) |
| 2. | Araṭṭa Kāyipaṉ [*att*(*a*)*vāyī*] | 9. | Natti (*kaṇi*) |
| 3. | Āritaṉ (*patantaṉ*) | 10. | Nataṉ (*kaṇi*) |
| 4. | I(l)lavōṉ (*upaca-aṉ*) | 11. | Nanta-siri Ku(v)aṉ (*kaṇi*) |
| 5. | Iḷaṅkāyipaṉ | 12. | Nākaṉ (*kaṇi*) |
| 6. | U(p)paruva[ṇ\*] (*upaca-aṉ*) | 13. | Paracu (*upacaṉ*) |
| 7. | Cantirananti (*ācirikaru*)† | 14. | Vaccaṇanti (*ācāriyar*)† |

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(† These two names are from Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscriptions.)

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*Nuns*

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1. Kavuṭi
2. Cē-k-(kanti) / (*kanti*)
3. Cē-k-(kant(i) -aṇṇi) / (*kanti*)
4. Sa(p)pami(t)tā [*pa*(*m*)*mittī*]

4.9.6 Common religious terms in Tamil-Brāhmī and Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscriptions

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Some of the expressions in the Tamil-Brāhmī and Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscriptions included in the Corpus are common to Vedic (Brahmanical) Hinduism and non-Vedic faiths (Ājīvika, Buddhist and Jaina). They have been treated in the present study as relating to Jainism taking the overall context into account (*vide* Inscriptional Glossary for references and Commentary for discussion).

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| (i) | *atiṭṭāṉam* | : | 'seat, permanent fixed abode'; refers to stone beds in the cave shelters. |
| (ii) | *aṟam* | : | 'charity, religious life'. |
| (iii) | *uṟai, uṟaiyuḷ* | : | 'abode of ascetics'. |
| (iv) | *tāṉa* | : | 'religious gift'. |
| (v) | *namōttu* | : | 'Let there be salutation!'; an invocation. |
| (vi) | *paḷḷi* | : | 'hermitage'; refers to the cave-shelter. |
| (vii) | *dhammam, dhamam* | : | 'religious gift, charity or endowment'. |

4.9.7 Jaina religious terms in Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscriptions

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Religious terms specific to Jainism or with specialised meanings in the Jaina context occur in the *nicītikai* inscriptions in Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu at Paraiyanpattu and Tirunatharkunru (Nos. ***115*** & ***116***, ca. 6th century A.D.). The expressions are listed below in alphabetical order with meanings. (*vide* Inscriptional Glossary for references and Commentary for discussion).

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| (i) *aṇacaṇam* | : | 'abstinence from food'; the Jaina religious penance of fasting unto death. |
| (ii) *ārātaṉi* | : | 'worship'; a Jaina technical term for the religious penance of fasting unto death. |
| (iii) *nicītikai* | : | 'seat of penance' (for fasting unto death). |
| (iv) *nōṟṟa, nōṟṟu* | : | 'who observed / having observed penance'. In Jaina terminology, *nōṉṟal* or *nōṉpu* refer to religious fasting. |
| (v) *muṭitta* | : | 'who completed'; a Jaina technical term for ending one's life through the penance of fasting unto death. |

4.9.8 Cave shelters: the earliest Jaina hermitages

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A brief description of the physical features of the cave shelters with Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions has been given in Chapter 1.¹ Here we shall look at the shelters as the earliest Jaina hermitages in the Tamil country (*vide* Inscriptional Glossary in Appendix I for references).

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¹ See section 1.7.

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(i) *paḷḷi

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The most frequent term used in the Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions for the hermitage is *paḷḷi*. In Early Tamil-Brāhmī, the word was spelt **pā ḷi** but read as *paḷḷi* according to the orthographic conventions of the period. In Late Tamil-Brāhmī, the word was spelt as *paḷḷi*. The original, literal meaning of *paḷḷi* 'sleeping place' applied to the cave shelters with stone beds and was later extended to hermitages or temples built of brick and mortar. The term *paḷḷi* came to mean 'school' as the hermitage was also a centre of learning from the earliest times. In literary works and later inscriptions, the term *paḷḷi* came to denote a non-Vedic (Ājīvika, Buddhist, Jaina) place of worship.

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(ii) *atiṭṭāṉam

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The *paḷḷi* comprised one or more stone beds with pillow lofts at the head side carved on the rock floor of the caves.² The beds are referred to as *atiṭṭāṉam* in the inscriptions (with variant spellings). The term is derived from Pkt. *adhiṭṭhāna* 'fixed, permanent abode' (*PED*) < Skt. *adhiṣṭhāna* 'abode, seat' (*MW*). The stone beds were known as *atiṭṭāṉam* as they were the permanent fixed abodes of the itinerant Jaina monks who stayed in the caves during the rainy season and went out preaching at other times of the year.

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² See Fig. 1.14.

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(iii) *Drip ledge

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The cave shelter was protected from rain by cutting a drip ledge across the brow of the overhanging boulder above the entrance to the cave.³ This feature is referred to by the following expressions.

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³ See Fig. 1.13.

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(a) ***kuṟa*** (LT *kuṟai*): 'a cut, cutting';
(b) ***kuṟu*** (LT *kūṟu*): 'section, division';
(c) ***tāra-aṇi***: An obscure expression tentatively interpreted as drip line (?) from *tāra* (LT *tārai*) 'line or stream'; *aṇi*: 'which is joined'.

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(iv) *Canopy*

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The cave shelter was protected from sun and rain by a canopy of thatched roof in front of the entrance as indicated by the post holes on the brow of the overhanging boulder and on the rock floor below. The wooden beams or posts made by a carpenter to support the canopy are referred to in the inscription at Mamandur (No. 73, ca. 3rd century A.D.) as ***āci***: 'prop, support'. Cf. Ta. *ācu*: id.; and AMg. *āsi* 'to support'.

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(v) *Front yard*

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The spacious front yard outside the entrance to the cave at Pugalur is referred to as ***muṉṟu*** 'forecourt' (cf. Ta. *muṉṟ-il*).

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(vi) *Water sources*

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The caves for siting the shelters were carefully selected to ensure regular supply of water from sources like rock springs on the hill or larger reservoirs on the plains nearby. The inscriptions refer to these water sources as follows (*vide* Inscriptional Glossary).
(a) ***kaya[m*]**: 'tank, pool'.
(b) ***cuṇai***: 'mountain pool, spring'.
(c) ***pēr-ay-am*** (*pērayam*): 'large tank'.
(d) ***poykai***: natural spring, pond, tank.

Cites (2)