[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Archaeology, epigraphy and coins](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy) › [Early Tamil Epigraphy: From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D.](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003) › c8 # Early Tamil Epigraphy: From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. c8: Detailed Table of Contents Early Tamil Epigraphy: From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. c8 - **Language:** English ### Detailed Table of Contents ### [c8.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.1) PART ONE ### [c8.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.2) EARLY TAMIL INSCRIPTIONS ### [c8.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.3) 1. Discovery ### [c8.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.4) | Section | Page | Section | Page | | 1.1 Introduction | 3 | 1.8.3 Stelae inscriptions: Arasalapuram and Indalur | 30 | | 1.2 Earliest discoveries (1882-1903) | 4 | 1.8.4 A unique inscribed object: the Erettimalai Stone | 30 | | 1.2.1 Mangulam: Pāṇḍiya inscriptions of the Caṅkam Age | 4 | 1.8.5 A rock-cut shrine: Pillaiyarpatti | 30 | | 1.2.2 Edakal: Cēra inscriptions of the Caṅkam Age | 8 | 1.8.6 Early Vaṭṭeluttu inscriptions from outside Tamil Nadu | 31 | | 1.2.3 Kilavalavu: the earliest reference to Tondi on the east coast | 11 | 1.9 Map showing sites with Early Tamil inscriptions | 36 | | 1.3 A flood of discoveries (1906-18) | 11 | 1.10 Distribution of Early Tamil inscriptions | 36 | | 1.3.1 Alagarmalai: endowment by merchants from Madurai | 13 | 1.11 Distribution of Early Vaṭṭeluttu inscriptions | 37 | | 1.3.2 Sittannavasal: abode of a Jaina nun from Karnataka | 15 | 1.12 Catalogues of Early Tamil inscriptions | 37 | | 1.4 Waning interest and random discoveries (1926-52) | 16 | \*\*Annexure: Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions on pottery and other inscribed objects\*\* | | | 1.4.1 Pugalur: Cēra inscriptions of the Caṅkam Age | 17 | 1.13 Pottery inscriptions | 43 | | 1.5 Revival of interest: fresh copying of inscriptions (1961-80) | 20 | 1.13.1 Introduction | 43 | | 1.5.1 Arachalur: musical notations | 21 | 1.13.2 Arikamedu | 43 | | 1.6 Recent discoveries (1981-2000) | 21 | 1.13.3 Uraiyur | 44 | | 1.6.1 Jambai: inscription of Atiyaṉ Neṭumāṉ Añci | 23 | 1.13.4 Kodumanal | 44 | | 1.6.2 Mannarkoil: the earliest reference to a \*kaṭikai\* (\*ghaṭikā\*) | 24 | 1.13.5 Alagankulam | 45 | | 1.7 Physical features of caves with Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 25 | 1.13.6 Other excavated sites with pottery inscriptions | 47 | | 1.8 Discovery of Early Vaṭṭeluttu inscriptions | 25 | 1.13.7 Other explored sites with pottery inscriptions | 47 | | 1.8.1 Cave shelters | 27 | 1.13.8 Tamil-Brāhmī pottery inscriptions from outside Tamil Nadu | 48 | | 1.8.2 Jaina \*nicītikai\* inscriptions | 29 | 1.13.9 Tamil-Brāhmī pottery inscriptions from outside India | 48 | ### [c8.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.5) Detailed table of contents (contd.) ### [c8.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.6) | Section | Page | Section | Page | | 1.13.10 General characteristics of pottery inscriptions | 49 | 2.10 Renewed study of cave inscriptions: the first field expedition (1962-66) | 81 | | 1.14 Inscribed objects with Tamil-Brāhmī legends: coins, seals and rings | 50 | 2.11 Tracings of cave inscriptions | 82 | | 1.15 A unique inscribed touchstone from Thailand | 51 | 2.12 \*Corpus of the Tamil-Brāhmī Inscriptions 1966 (1968)\* | 83 | | | | 2.13 Later publications on Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 84 | | ## 2. Decipherment | | 2.13.1 R. Nagaswamy 1972 | 84 | | 2.1 Introduction | 69 | 2.13.2 R. Panneerselvam 1972 | 84 | | 2.2 Venkayya's reading | 69 | 2.13.3 M.S. Venkataswamy 1981 | 85 | | 2.3 Krishna Sastri's readings | 70 | 2.13.4 \*History of Tamil Nadu: Sangam Age (Political) 1983\* | 86 | | 2.3.1 Script | 71 | 2.14 Results of recent research on the orthography of Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 86 | | 2.3.2 Orthography | 71 | 2.14.1 Revised model of medial vowel notations | 87 | | 2.3.3 Language | 72 | 2.14.2 Other orthographic 'peculiarities' in the cave inscriptions | 87 | | 2.4 Breakthrough: Subrahmanya Aiyer's decipherment | 72 | 2.15 Second field expedition (1991-96) | 87 | | 2.4.1 Phonological structure of the script | 73 | 2.15.1 Aims of the expedition | 89 | | 2.4.2 Discovery of the special Tamil characters | 73 | 2.15.2 Special studies | 90 | | 2.4.3 Identification of Tamil grammatical elements | 75 | 2.16 Chronology of Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 90 | | 2.4.4 Language of cave inscriptions | 75 | 2.16.1 Chronology of pottery inscriptions in Tamil-Brāhmī | 91 | | 2.4.5 Problems with Subrahmanya Aiyer's readings | 75 | 2.16.2 Changing trends in the chronology of cave inscriptions | 92 | | 2.4.6 Assessment of Subrahmanya Aiyer's work | 77 | 2.16.3 Chronological classification | 92 | | 2.5 A comic interlude | 77 | 2.16.4 Reappraisal of chronological evidence | 93 | | 2.6 Elements of Bhattiprolu orthography in cave inscriptions | 78 | 2.16.5 Palaeographic evidence | 93 | | 2.7 The first linguistic study | 79 | 2.16.6 Orthographic evidence | 94 | | 2.8 Discovery of the \*puḷḷi\* in the Tamil-Brāhmī script | 80 | | | | 2.9 The first book on cave inscriptions | 80 | | | ### [c8.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.7) | Section | Page | Section | Page | | 2.16.7 Linguistic evidence | 95 | ## 4. Polity | | | 2.16.8 Revised chronological scheme | 95 | 4.1 Introduction | 115 | | 2.17 Documentation | 95 | A. STATE | | | 2.17.1 Tracings | 95 | 4.2 The Pāṇḍiyas | 115 | | 2.17.2 Estampages | 96 | 4.2.1 Neṭuñceḻiyaṉ | 115 | | 2.17.3 Direct photographs | 96 | 4.2.2 Peruvaḻuti | 116 | | ## 3. Language | | 4.2.3 Kaḷumāra Nataṉ | 116 | | | | 4.3 The Cēras | 117 | | 3.1 Language of cave inscriptions | 101 | 4.3.1 Irumpor̲ais of the Pugalur inscriptions | 117 | | 3.1.1 The unsolved problem | 101 | 4.3.2 Coịns of the Irumpor̲ais | 118 | | 3.1.2 How much Tamil? | 101 | 4.3.3 Cēra inscriptions from Kerala | 118 | | 3.1.3 What kind of Tamil? | 102 | 4.3.4 Silver portrait coins of the Cēras | 118 | | 3.1.4 The language of the inscriptions is Old Tamil | 103 | 4.4 The Cōḻas | 118 | | 3.1.5 Dravidian and Indo-Aryan in the inscriptions | 103 | 4.4.1 Tittaṉ | 119 | | | | 4.4.2 Neṭuṅkiḷḷi | 119 | | 3.2 Dravidian element | 104 | 4.5 Chieftains | 119 | | 3.2.1 Phonemic inventory | 104 | 4.5.1 Atiyaṉ Neṭumāṉ Añci | 119 | | 3.2.2 Lexical items | 105 | 4.5.2 Piṭṭaṉ and Kor̲r̲antai | 120 | | 3.2.3 Grammatical elements | 107 | 4.5.3 Kaṇimāṉ | 121 | | 3.2.4 Influence of Old Kannada | 108 | 4.5.4 Atiṇṇaṉ Etirāṉ Cēntaṉ | 121 | | 3.3 Indo-Aryan element | 109 | 4.5.5 Patumaṉ Kōtai | 121 | | 3.3.1 Phonology: presence of non-Tamil sounds | 109 | 4.6 Administration | 122 | | | | 4.6.1 King | 122 | | 3.3.2 Orthography | 109 | 4.6.2 Heir apparent | 122 | | 3.3.3 Vocabulary | 109 | 4.6.3 Princes | 122 | | 3.3.4 Prakrit grammatical usages | 110 | 4.6.4 Chieftains | 122 | | 3.3.5 Prakrit of the cave inscriptions | 111 | 4.6.5 Servant (of the king) | 122 | | 3.3.6 Lexical items of doubtful etymology | 112 | 4.6.6 Superintendent, chief | 122 | | | | 4.6.7 Superintendent of pearls | 123 | | 3.3.7 Changeover from Prakrit to Sanskrit | 114 | 4.6.8 Chief of scribes | 123 | | | | 4.6.9 Title of ministers, palace officials and merchants | 124 | | | | 4.6.10 An honour or title bestowed by the king | 124 | ### [c8.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.8) | Section | Page | Section | Page | | 4.6.11 Titles of other important personages | 124 | 4.11 Early Jaina records with dates | 136 | | 4.6.12 The village assembly | 125 | 4.12 Re-occupation of the cave shelters by later Jainas | 137 | | 4.6.13 Assembly of learned persons | 125 | 4.13 Jaina contribution to Tamil | 139 | | 4.6.14 Warfare | 126 | | | | | | C. SOCIETY | | | B. RELIGION | | 4.14 Introduction | 140 | | 4.7 Earlier views on the authors of cave inscriptions | 126 | 4.15 Agriculture | 140 | | 4.7.1 Buddhist occupation of the caves | 126 | 4.15.1 Paddy | 140 | | 4.7.2 Ājīvika presence in the caves | 127 | 4.15.2 Ploughshare | 140 | | 4.8 Early phase of Jainism in the Tamil country | 127 | 4.15.3 Irrigation | 140 | | 4.8.1 Bhadrabahu-Chandragupta legend | 127 | 4.16 Trade | 141 | | 4.8.2 Samprati and Jainism in the Tamil country | 128 | 4.16.1 The merchant guild | 141 | | 4.9 Evidence of Jainism in Tamil-Brāhmī and Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscriptions | 128 | 4.16.2 Merchants and traders | 141 | | 4.9.1 Jaina character of the inscriptions: a statistical study | 128 | 4.16.3 Commodities of trade | 141 | | 4.9.2 Jaina terminology | 129 | 4.17 Professions | 141 | | 4.9.3 Titles of monks | 129 | 4.17.1 Mason and master mason | 141 | | 4.9.4 Titles of nuns | 131 | 4.17.2 Producer or seller of salt | 142 | | 4.9.5 Names of Jaina monks and nuns | 131 | 4.17.3 Carpenter | 142 | | 4.9.6 Common religious terms in Tamil-Brāhmī and Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscriptions | 132 | 4.17.4 Mahout or charioteer | 142 | | 4.9.7 Jaina religious terms in Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscriptions | 132 | 4.17.5 Goldsmith | 142 | | 4.9.8 Cave shelters: the earliest Jaina hermitages | 133 | 4.18 Social organisation | 142 | | 4.10 Evolution of Early Jainism in the Tamil country | 134 | 4.18.1 Clans | 142 | | 4.10.1 Early period | 135 | 4.18.2 Kinship | 144 | | 4.10.2 Middle period | 135 | 4.18.3 Honorifics | 144 | | 4.10.3 Late period | 135 | 4.18.4 Attributes | 145 | | | | 4.19 Personal names | 145 | | | | 4.19.1 Appellative names | 145 | | | | 4.19.2 Names based on religion | 146 | | | | 4.19.3 Names based on Vedic and Brahmanical deities | 147 | | | | 4.19.4 Personal names based on asterisms | 149 | | | | 4.19.5 Personal names (based on other asterisms) on inscribed objects | 150 | | | | 4.19.6 Personal names after \*ṛishis\*, \*gōtras\*, etc. | 151 | ### [c8.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.9) | Section | Page | Section | Page | | \*\*4.19.7 A note on personal names derived from Indo-Aryan\*\* | 151 | \*\*5.4 Origin of Tamil-Brāhmī\*\* | 173 | | \*\*4.20 Place names\*\* | 151 | \*\*5.5 Graphemic inventory of Tamil-Brāhmī\*\* | 175 | | \*\*4.20.1 Countries\*\* | 151 | \*\*5.6 Tamil-Brāhmī and other Brāhmī variants\*\* | 175 | | \*\*4.20.2 Regions outside the Tamil country\*\* | 152 | \*\*5.6.1 Mauryan Brāhmī\*\* | 175 | | \*\*4.20.3 Territorial divisions\*\* | 152 | \*\*5.6.2 Southern Brāhmī\*\* | 175 | | \*\*4.20.4 Cities and ports\*\* | 153 | \*\*5.6.3 The Bhattiprolu script\*\* | 176 | | \*\*4.20.5 Other place names\*\* | 156 | \*\*5.6.4 Sinhala-Brāhmī\*\* | 177 | | \*\*4.20.6 Common toponyms\*\* | 156 | \*\*5.7 Tamil-Brāhmī: general characteristics of writing\*\* | 178 | | \*\*4.21 Flora and fauna\*\* | 157 | \*\*5.8 Direction of writing\*\* | 179 | | \*\*4.21.1 Flora\*\* | 157 | \*\*5.9 Palaeography of Tamil-Brāhmī and Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu\*\* | 180 | | \*\*4.21.2 Fauna\*\* | 157 | \*\*5.10 Vowels\*\* | 181 | | \*\*4.22 Culture\*\* | 158 | \*\*5.11 Consonants\*\* | 184 | | \*\*4.22.1 Art\*\* | 158 | \*\*5.12 Additional letters in Tamil-Brāhmī\*\* | 187 | | \*\*4.22.2 Music and dance\*\* | 158 | \*\*5.12.1 Tamil-Brāhmī \*ḷ\*\*\* | 187 | | \*\*4.23 Sport: cockfight\*\* | 159 | \*\*5.12.2 Tamil-Brāhmī \*ḻ\*\*\* | 193 | | \*\*4.24 From orality to literacy: transition in early Tamil society\*\* | 159 | \*\*5.12.3 Tamil-Brāhmī \*ṟ\*\*\* | 194 | | \*\*4.24.1 Early literacy in Tamil society\*\* | 159 | \*\*5.12.4 Tamil-Brāhmī \*ṉ\*\*\* | 195 | | \*\*4.24.2 Popular versus elitist literacy\*\* | 160 | \*\*5.13 Medial vowel signs\*\* | 196 | | \*\*4.24.3 Literacy and political independence\*\* | 161 | \*\*5.14 The \*puḷḷi\*: palaeographic aspects\*\* | 198 | | \*\*4.24.4 Facilitating factors for spread of literacy\*\* | 162 | \*\*5.15 Tamil-Brāhmī legends on Sātavāhana coins\*\* | 199 | | \*\*4.24.5 A democratic, quasi-alphabetic script\*\* | 164 | \*\*5.15.1 Previous studies\*\* | 199 | | \*\*4.24.6 The consequences of literacy in early Tamil society\*\* | 164 | \*\*5.15.2 Coin-legends\*\* | 201 | | | | \*\*5.15.3 Palaeography of the coin-legends on the reverse\*\* | 202 | | # PART TWO | | \*\*5.15.4 Chronology of Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions in the light of the coin-legends\*\* | 203 | | ## STUDIES IN EARLY TAMIL EPIGRAPHY | | \*\*5.15.5 Language of the coin-legends on the reverse\*\* | 204 | | ### 5. Palaeography | | \*\*5.15.6 Literal translation\*\* | 204 | | \*\*5.1 Nomenclature\*\* | 167 | | | | \*\*5.2 Palaeographic Charts\*\* | 168 | | | | \*\*5.3 Origin of writing in Tamil: earlier theories\*\* | 169 | | | ### [c8.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.10) | Section | Page | Section | Page | | \*\*5.15.7 Reason for the employment of Tamil in the coin-legends\*\* | 205 | \*\*6.3 Orthographic conventions in Brāhmī inscriptions\*\* | 225 | | \*\*5.16 Numerals\*\* | 205 | \*\*6.4 Evolution of alternative medial vowel notations in Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions\*\* | 226 | | \*\*5.17 Punctuation\*\* | 205 | | | | \*\*5.18 Symbols in cave inscriptions\*\* | 205 | \*\*6.5 TB-I system of medial vowel notation\*\* | 227 | | \*\*5.18.1 Juxtaposition of script and symbols on pottery from Kodumanal\*\* | 206 | \*\*6.6 Medial vowel notation in Bhattiprolu inscriptions\*\* | 227 | | \*\*5.18.2 Symbols in the cave inscriptions of Sri Lanka\*\* | 209 | \*\*6.7 TB-II system of medial vowel notation\*\* | 229 | | \*\*5.18.3 The Anaikoddai Seal\*\* | 209 | \*\*6.8 TB-III (\*puḷḷi\*) system of medial vowel notation\*\* | 230 | | \*\*5.18.4 Cave symbols and signs of the Indus script\*\* | 209 | \*\*6.9 The \*puḷḷi\* in \*Tolkāppiyam\*\*\* | 230 | | \*\*5.19 The Vaṭṭeluttu script\*\* | 210 | \*\*6.10 Medial vowel notations in Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions: a comparative study\*\* | 231 | | \*\*5.19.1 Origin of Vaṭṭeluttu\*\* | 210 | | | | \*\*5.19.2 Evolution of Vaṭṭeluttu: the early phase (5-6 centuries a.d.)\*\* | 211 | \*\*6.11 Medial vowel notations in cave inscriptions\*\* | 234 | | \*\*5.19.3 Evolution of Vaṭṭeluttu: the middle phase (7-10 centuries a.d.)\*\* | 212 | \*\*6.12 Medial vowel notations in pottery inscriptions\*\* | 234 | | \*\*5.19.4 Evolution of Vaṭṭeluttu: the last phase (11-19 centuries a.d.)\*\* | 212 | \*\*6.12.1 At sites in Tamil Nadu\*\* | 235 | | | | \*\*6.12.2 From sites outside Tamil Nadu\*\* | 235 | | \*\*5.20 The Tamil script\*\* | 213 | \*\*6.13 Medial vowel notations in legends on inscribed objects\*\* | 235 | | \*\*5.20.1 Emergence of the Tamil script\*\* | 213 | \*\*6.13.1 Coins\*\* | 236 | | \*\*5.20.2 Evidence for earlier Tamil inscriptions re-examined\*\* | 214 | \*\*6.13.2 Seals\*\* | 236 | | \*\*5.21 Evolution and chronology of South Indian scripts: a summary\*\* | 215 | \*\*6.13.3 Rings\*\* | 236 | | | | \*\*6.14 Use of \*ī\* as \*i\* in Early Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions\*\* | 237 | | \*\*6. Orthography\*\* | | \*\*6.15 Special usage governing \*u\*-vowels in Early Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions\*\* | 237 | | \*\*6.1 Introduction\*\* | 225 | | | | \*\*6.2 Orthographic 'peculiarities' of Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions\*\* | 225 | \*\*6.15.1 Apparent lengthening of \*u\* as \*ū\*\*\* | 237 | ### [c8.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.11) | Section | Page | Section | Page | | 6.15.2 Empirical rules for the special usage of \*u\*-vowels | 239 | 6.21.3 Loss of anusvāra \*ṁ\* | 246 | | 6.16 Dual values of the letters \*e\* and \*o\* | 239 | 6.21.4 Loss of \*h\* | 246 | | 6.17 Doubling of consonants in Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 240 | 6.21.5 Substitution of sibilants | 246 | | 6.17.1 Doubling of consonants in loanwords | 240 | 6.21.6 Intervocalic \*-p-\* \> \*-v-\* | 247 | | 6.17.2 Doubling of consonants in Tamil words | 241 | 6.21.7 IA non-initial \*-n\* \> Ta. \*-ṇ\* | 247 | | 6.17.3 Doubling of consonants as a grammatical feature | 242 | 6.21.8 IA final \*-ā\* \> Ta. \*-ai\* | 247 | | 6.17.4 A special orthographic convention for doubling of consonants | 242 | 6.22 Voicing of consonants: evidence of Tamil-Brāhmī orthography | 247 | | 6.17.5 Doubled consonants in Early Tamil inscriptions | 242 | 6.22.1 Caldwell's Law | 247 | | 6.18 Analytical writing in Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 242 | 6.22.2 Absence of voiced consonants in Tamil-Brāhmī | 248 | | 6.18.1 Consonant followed by vowel | 243 | 6.22.3 Substitution of voiced with voiceless consonants in loanwords and Prakrit inscriptions | 248 | | 6.18.2 Vowel followed by vowel | 243 | 6.22.4 Weakened articulation of consonants | 249 | | 6.19 Pause in Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions | 244 | 6.22.5 Minimal presence and loss of the sibilant \*s\* | 249 | | 6.19.1 Pause in lieu of doubling of consonants | 244 | 6.22.6 \*Tolkāppiyam\* silent on voicing | 249 | | 6.19.2 Pause indicating that the following vowel is a diphthong | 244 | 6.22.7 Evidence of voicing only from the early medieval period | 249 | | 6.20 Assimilation and epenthesis in loanwords | 245 | 6.22.8 Interpreting the evidence | 249 | | 6.20.1 Where the changes had taken place in Prakrit | 245 | 6.22.9 Discussion | 250 | | 6.20.2 Where the changes appear to have taken place in Tamil | 245 | 6.22.10 Conclusion | 251 | | 6.21 Orthographic changes in loanwords | 245 | ## 7. Grammar | | | 6.21.1 Loss of voicing | 245 | I. PHONOLOGY | | | 6.21.2 Loss of aspiration | 246 | 7.1 The Tamil alphabet | 253 | | | | 7.2 Phonemic inventory | 253 | | | | 7.2.1 Vowels (\*uyir\*) | 253 | | | | 7.2.2 Consonants (\*mey\*) | 253 | ### [c8.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.12) | Section | Page | Section | Page | | 7.3 Dependent sounds (\*cārpeḻuttu\*) | 254 | II. MORPHOPHONEMICS | | | 7.3.1 Shortened \*-i\* (\*kuṟṟiyal-ikaram\*) | 254 | 7.9 Definition | 271 | | 7.3.2 Shortened \*-u\* (\*kuṟṟiyal-ukaram\*) | 254 | 7.10 Sandhi without change | 271 | | 7.3.3 The āytam (\*ḵ\*) | 254 | 7.11 Sandhi of consonant and vowel | 271 | | 7.4 Distribution of vowels | 255 | 7.11.1 In personal names | 272 | | 7.4.1 Initial | 255 | 7.11.2 In place names | 272 | | 7.4.2 Medial | 255 | 7.12 Mutation of initial stem in sandhi | 272 | | 7.4.3 Final | 256 | 7.13 Changes in sandhi | 273 | | 7.4.4 Vowel clusters | 256 | 7.14 Assimilation | 273 | | 7.5 Distribution of consonants | 257 | 7.14.1 Regressive assimilation | 273 | | 7.5.1 In the Corpus | 257 | 7.14.2 Progressive assimilation | 274 | | 7.5.2 Comparison with \*Tolkāppiyam\* | 261 | 7.14.3 Mutual assimilation | 275 | | 7.6 Distribution of consonant-vowels | 263 | 7.15 Addition | 275 | | 7.6.1 In the Corpus | 263 | 7.15.1 Addition of glide \*-y-\* | 275 | | 7.6.2 Comparison with \*Tolkāppiyam\* | 263 | 7.15.2 Addition of glide \*-v-\* | 276 | | 7.7 Sound variations | 265 | 7.15.3 Doubling of the final consonant | 277 | | 7.7.1 Vowels | 265 | 7.15.4 Doubling of the initial consonant | 277 | | 7.7.2 Consonants | 267 | 7.16 Elision | 278 | | 7.8 Some phonological processes | 269 | 7.16.1 Elision of a stem-final vowel | 278 | | 7.8.1 Addition of paragogic suffixes | 269 | 7.16.2 Elision of the stem-final shortened \*-u\* | 279 | | 7.8.2 Addition of the euphonic vowel \*-u\* | 270 | 7.16.3 With doubling of the preceding consonant | 279 | | 7.8.3 Addition of the prothetic vowel \*i-\* | 270 | 7.16.4 Elision of the stem-final suffix \*-(a)m\* | 279 | | 7.8.4 Contraction | 270 | 7.16.5 Elision of the stem-final PNG suffix \*-(a)ṉ\* before a noun | 280 | | 7.8.5 Loss of initial palatal \*c-\* | 270 | | | | 7.8.6 Elision of nasal \*n\* | 270 | | | | 7.8.7 Elision of \*n\* with doubling of consonants | 270 | 7.16.6 Elision of the PNG suffix \*-(a)ṉ\* before a genitive suffix | 280 | | 7.8.8 Elision of nasal \*ṉ\* | 270 | | | ### [c8.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.13) | Section | Page | Section | Page | | \*\*III. MORPHOLOGY\*\* | | 7.27 Case | 289 | | | | 7.27.1 First case (nominative) | 289 | | 7.17 Definition | 281 | 7.27.2 Second case (accusative) | 289 | | 7.18 Syllabic structure of stems | 281 | 7.27.3 Fourth case (dative) | 289 | | 7.19 Parts of speech | 281 | 7.27.4 Sixth case (genitive) | 290 | | 7.20 Nouns | 281 | 7.27.5 Zero-genitive | 291 | | 7.20.1 Classification of nouns | 281 | 7.27.6 Seventh case (locative) | 291 | | 7.20.2 Personal names (N.) | 281 | 7.28 Verbs | 292 | | 7.20.3 Place names (P.) | 281 | 7.28.1 Verb stems in the Corpus | 292 | | 7.20.4 Common nouns (n.) | 281 | 7.28.2 Transitive and intransitive | | | 7.20.5 Appellative nouns | 283 | verbs | 293 | | 7.21 Numerals | 283 | 7.28.3 Causative verbs | 293 | | 7.22 Pronouns | 284 | 7.28.4 Causative suffixes | 293 | | 7.22.1 Personal pronouns | 284 | 7.28.5 Frequency and distribution | | | 7.22.2 Demonstrative pronouns | 284 | of causative suffixes | 294 | | 7.22.3 Numeral pronouns | 284 | 7.29 Tense | 294 | | 7.23 Number and gender | 284 | 7.29.1 Past tense | 294 | | 7.23.1 Masculine singular | 285 | 7.29.2 Non-past (present-future) | | | 7.23.2 Feminine singular | 285 | tense | 294 | | 7.23.3 Honorific singular | 285 | 7.29.3 Absence of finite verbs | 295 | | 7.23.4 Human (epicene) plural | 285 | 7.30 Participial nouns | 295 | | 7.23.5 Neuter singular | 286 | 7.30.1 PNG suffixes of participial | | | 7.23.6 Neuter plural | 286 | nouns | 295 | | 7.24 Person | 286 | 7.30.2 Past participial nouns | 295 | | 7.24.1 PNG suffixes | 287 | 7.30.3 Non-past participial noun | 296 | | 7.24.2 Masculine singular | 287 | 7.31 Verbal nouns | 296 | | 7.24.3 Feminine singular | 287 | 7.32 Adjectival participles | 296 | | 7.24.4 Honorific singular | 288 | 7.32.1 Adjectival past participles | 297 | | 7.24.5 Epicene plural | 288 | 7.32.2 Adjectival aorist participles | 298 | | 7.25 Noun stems as attributes | 288 | 7.33 Adverbial participles | 298 | | 7.26 The oblique stem | 288 | 7.34 The infinitive | 298 | | 7.26.1 Nouns ending in \*-am\* | 288 | 7.35 Adjectives | 299 | | 7.26.2 Nouns ending in \*-tu\* or \*-ru\* | 289 | 7.36 Interjections | 300 | | 7.26.3 Oblique pronominal stem | 289 | 7.37 Particles | 300 | | | | 7.38 Grammatical morphemes | 301 | ### [c8.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.14) | Section | Page | Section | Page | | \*\*IV. SYNTAX\*\* | | 7.42 Sentences with adjectival participles as verbs | 303 | | 7.39 Definition | 301 | 7.42.1 Qualifying the subject | 303 | | 7.40 Syntax in Early Tamil inscriptions | 302 | 7.42.2 Qualifying the object | 303 | | 7.41 Sentences with participial nouns as verbs | 302 | 7.43 Sentences without verbs | 304 | | 7.41.1 In subject-object-verb order | 302 | 7.44 Adverbial clauses | 305 | | 7.41.2 In object-verb-subject order | 302 | 7.44.1 With the verbal participle (of cause) | 305 | | 7.41.3 In subject-verb order | 303 | 7.44.2 With the infinitive (of cause) | 305 | | 7.41.4 In verb-subject order | 303 | 7.45 Agreement between subject and predicate | 305 | ### [c8.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.15) PART THREE ### [c8.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.16) CORPUS OF EARLY TAMIL INSCRIPTIONS ### [c8.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.17) COMMENTARY ON INSCRIPTIONS ### [c8.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.18) | Site No. | Site | Inscr. No. | Corpus Page | Commentary Page | | | \*\*Early Tamil-Brāhmī Inscriptions (\*1-59\*)\*\* | | | | | | \*\*(ca. 2nd century B.C.-1st century A.D.)\*\* | | | | | | Introduction | | 309 | 541 | | I | Mangulam 1-6 | \*1-6\* | 315 | 543 | | II | Arittapatti | \*7\* | 325 | 552 | | III | Tiruvadavur 1-2 | \*8-9\* | 327 | 552 | | IV | Kilavalavu | \*10\* | 331 | 554 | | V | Kongarpuliyankulam 1-3 | \*11-13\* | 333 | 555 | | VI | Marukaltalai | \*14\* | 337 | 558 | | VII | Varichiyur 1-3 | \*15-17\* | 339 | 559 | | VIII | Vikkiramangalam 1-6 | \*18-23\* | 343 | 560 | | IX | Mettuppatti 1-10 | \*24-33\* | 351 | 563 | | X | Karungalakkudi | \*34\* | 365 | 567 | | XI | Mudalaikulam | \*35\* | 367 | 568 | | XII | Alagarmalai 1-13 | \*36-48\* | 369 | 569 | | XIII | Sittannavasal-A | \*49\* | 385 | 577 | | XIV | Aiyarmalai | \*50\* | 387 | 580 | | XV | Tirumalai 1-2 | \*51-52\* | 388 | 581 | | XVI | Tirupparankunram 1-3 | \*53-55\* | 391 | 583 | | XVII | Muttuppatti 1-3 | \*56-58\* | 395 | 586 | | XVIII | Jambai | \*59\* | 399 | 588 | ### [c8.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.19) | Site No. | Site | Inscr. No. | Corpus Page | Commentary Page | | | | \*\*Late Tamil-Brāhmī Inscriptions (\*60-89\*)\*\* | | | | | | \*\*(ca. 2nd-4th centuries A.D. )\*\* | | | | XIX | Anaimalai | \*\*\*60\*\*\* | 403 | 591 | | XX | Pugalur 1-12 | \*\*\*61-72\*\*\* | 405 | 592 | | XXI | Mamandur | \*\*\*73\*\*\* | 423 | 604 | | XXII | Kunnakkudi 1-2 | \*\*\*74-75\*\*\* | 425 | 606 | | XXIII | Tondur | \*\*\*76\*\*\* | 427 | 606 | | XXIV | Kudumiyamalai | \*\*\*77\*\*\* | 429 | 608 | | XXV | Tiruchirapalli-A | \*\*\*78\*\*\* | 430 | 608 | | XXVI | Edakal-A 1-4 | \*\*\*79-82\*\*\* | 431 | 608 | | XXVII | Nekanurpatti | \*\*\*83\*\*\* | 437 | 611 | | XXVIII | Ammankoyilpatti | \*\*\*84\*\*\* | 439 | 613 | | XXIX | Arachalur 1-3 | \*\*\*85-87\*\*\* | 441 | 616 | | XXX | Mannarkoil 1-2 | \*\*\*88-89\*\*\* | 445 | 618 | | | | \*\*Early Vaṭṭeluttu Inscriptions (\*101-121\*)\*\* | | | | | | \*\*(ca. 5th and 6th centuries A.D.)\*\* | | | | XXXI | Sittannavasal-B 1-7 | \*\*\*101-107\*\*\* | 451 | 621 | | XXXII | Tiruchirapalli-B 1-3 | \*\*\*108-110\*\*\* | 461 | 623 | | XXXIII | Perumukkal | \*\*\*111\*\*\* | 465 | 624 | | XXXIV | Arasalapuram | \*\*\*112\*\*\* | 467 | 624 | | XXXV | Indalur | \*\*\*113\*\*\* | 468 | 626 | | XXXVI | Erettimalai | \*\*\*114\*\*\* | 469 | 627 | | XXXVII | Paraiyanpattu | \*\*\*115\*\*\* | 471 | 628 | | XXXVIII | Tirunatharkunru | \*\*\*116\*\*\* | 473 | 633 | | XXXIX | Pillaiyarpatti | \*\*\*117\*\*\* | 475 | 634 | | XL | Edakal-B 1-2 | \*\*\*118-119\*\*\* | 477 | 635 | | XLI | Ezhuttukallu | \*\*\*120\*\*\* | 479 | 637 | | XLII | Tamatakallu | \*\*\*121\*\*\* | 481 | 639 | ### [c8.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.20) APPENDICES ### [c8.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8.21) | I. | Inscriptional Glossary | 643 | | II. | Index to Personal Names in the Inscriptions | 656 | | III. | Index to Place Names in the Inscriptions | 659 | | IV. | Etymological Index: Dravidian | 661 | | V. | Etymological Index: Indo-Aryan | 671 | | VI. | Etymological Index: Doubtful Items | 678 | | VII. | Index to Grammatical Morphemes in the Inscriptions | 680 | ## Linked texts (5) - [Tolkāppiyam](https://indike.org/pramana/in.sangam.grammar.tolkappiyam) — Tolkāppiyar, Tamil - [Uṟaiyūr](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.uraiyur) - [Cittaṉṉavācal](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sittannavasal) - [Aḻakaṉkuḷam](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.alagankulam) - [Tirupparaṅkuṉram](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.tirupparankunram) --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.epigraphy.mahadevan-2003.c8) · Pramāṇa