Prehistory and Protohistory in India and Pakistan c3: Preface

Prehistory and Protohistory in India and Pakistan c3

Language: English

c3.s1 Post Script — 2 parts

Preface

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THE University of Bombay instituted a new series of lectures named after the late Pandit Dr. BHAGWANLAL INDRAJI. BHAGWANLAL INDRAJI has been known as a pioneer worker in epigraphy, numismatics and other allied subjects of historical archaeology. Many of his conclusions arrived at after a great deal of careful study and field-work have not been, for the last 100 years, refuted, which testifies to his great scholarship. Much is written about his epigraphical and numismatical work. It is not, however, realized that BHAGWANLAL was also a great and careful excavator. Even without undergoing any training in this discipline of excavation, as in the disciplines of epigraphy and numismatics, his observations on the stratigraphy of the burial mound at Govardhan, about six miles west of Nasik will do credit to any archaeologist of today, whether trained by Sir MORTIMER WHEELER or General PITT RIVERS in England. This work of BHAGWANLAL done in 1888 should be noted, because it has escaped the attention of the writers of his biography, and in this era of scientific archaeology, we should credit the person not only for the work he did in epigraphy and numismatics but in scientific excavation as well.

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It was therefore a great privilege and honour to be invited by the University of Bombay to deliver these lectures named after Pandit Dr. BHAGWANLAL INDRAJI. Though the subject is one in which he did not do much work, it has been mentioned above that he had tried his hand at excavation and that too quite successfully.

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When the lectures were first announced and delivered, they were under the title *Prehistoric Archaeology of India*. It has been now deemed fit to call the subject *Prehistory and Proto-history in India and Pakistan*.

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The aim has been to offer a critical review of the work done in these two branches of archaeology in this sub-continent during the last twenty years or so. Naturally the concepts of prehistory and protohistory have been briefly examined and clarified as far as the current evidence permits. But while doing so no new theories or hypotheses about the origin of civilization have been advanced. Though in any field of investigation or research, there should be some hypotheses to start with, yet the writer feels that these should legitimately follow when sufficient data have been gathered. The emphasis is therefore on careful collection of the material. Distribution charts and maps based on inadequate evidence are likely to mislead and give rise to false notions. Hence in the present work besides indicating the distribution of various industries or assemblages of objects in each region, the distribution of the entire group is shown against a specific background, viz. physiographical features of India so that it may help in independently evaluating certain theories about the spread of civilization in India.

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Since the emphasis is being put on facts, the narrative is so planned that inferences or conclusions are not mixed up with any preconceived theories, but the latter follow the main account and can be appraised independently and objectively. The facts themselves have been gathered in two ways: firstly from a first-hand study of the objects and accounts of excavations and explorations conducted by the author, his colleagues and pupils at the Deccan College in several parts of India; and secondly, from a first-hand study, *as far as possible*, of the work done by the members of the Archaeological Survey of India, as well as other Directors of Archaeology in various States, and their colleagues and Professors in Indian Universities.

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Certain limitations on the scope and treatment have had to be imposed by the nature of the material. Though a first-hand study was carried out, whenever possible, reliance had to be placed upon the brief announcements of excavations and explorations in *Indian Archaeology—A Review*. These announcements, however welcome and excellent in their own way, can never take the place of full or even interim, well-written, definitive reports. Unfortunately the latter are not available in a number of cases. And it is doubtful, if many will ever see the light of the day; or if published after years, they will be as good as still-born.

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Secondly, a detailed review of the Indus Civilization and the Baluchistan pottery is omitted from this work, because a number of excellent publications on the subject exist. So also a reference to megaliths and rock-shelters and paintings; both these are well discussed by Sir MORTIMER WHEELER and the late Colonel GORDON in their respective works. And the writer has nothing new to offer. Likewise a part of Chapter IV, "Neolithic and Chalcolithic Cultures," has already appeared in the author's *Indian Archaeology Today*. Still, opportunity has been taken to bring it uptodate, important additions being references to excavations at Ahar, Eran, Kalibangan and explorations on the Makran coast and Rajar Dhipi and their dating by Carbon-14 method.

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A few implications of these new developments may be pointed out here. C-14 dates for Lothal and Kalibangan indicate that the Indus Civilization was on the decline, both in the present Bikaner region as well as in Saurashtra by 1800 B.C. Thus the view that the Aryans had brought its end by 1500 B.C.—1200 B.C. needs to be revised. The end had come at least 300 years earlier. Now it is at this very moment that we have Chalcolithic or Copper Age Cultures not only in Sind, (for which no C-14 dates are at present available, like Jhukar and Jhangar), but also in South-East Rajasthan, Central India and Saurashtra as well as in the Deccan. The earliest phases of Eran, Navdatoli and Ahar go back to a period between 2100—1800 B.C. The presumption is not unwarranted that these extra-Indus cultures had some share in bringing about the down-fall of and/or alteration in the Indus Civilization at home as well as in the outlying provinces.

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Evidence is also accumulating from the excavations at Ahar about the early smelting or refining of copper. Chemical analysis by the author's colleagues suggests that the local sources were exploited. Likewise very interesting information is coming forth from the explorations and excavations of Shri P. C. DAS GUPTA and his assistants in the Ajay Valley, Burdwan District, West Bengal. Chances are that here we shall have proof of the earliest use of iron by a people who seem to have been familiar with the painted pottery tradition of a still remoter age. Whatever be the final outcome, further extended work in the Chota Nagpur plateau will help fill up the gap between history and protohistory and explain the role of primitive tribes like Savaras and Santhals in it.

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Further, this and other chapters have been more fully illustrated by line-drawings, distributions maps and a few photographs. To keep down the cost of block-making, considerable published material is used. The blocks have been lent by the Director General of Archaeology in India, Deccan College, Asia Publishing House, American Anthropologist, and the Department of Archaeology, M. S. University of Baroda. To all these, the author is grateful.

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While illustrating the Stone Age tools, tools of the Middle Stone Age which have been recently discovered have been reproduced from several regions with a view to bring out their uniformity as well as distinctive features; but in the case of the Early and Late Stone Age, only representative types from a few select areas have been illustrated. Illustrations of pottery types have been again very much restricted, because here each site has so many wares and types and sub-types that only a full report devoted to each site can give an adequate idea of the entire range of pottery types. Again a reference to all these reports was not possible, because barring some five or six excavation reports, the rest are unpublished.

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It was originally intended to give in the Appendix a section dealing with the various techniques and description of tool-types, and so while detailing the various tool-types, some elementary details which may be necessary from the point of view of the beginner have been omitted. Afterwards, however, it was found that far too many illustrations would be required to illustrate the Appendix, that it should really form a new book. Thus this has been omitted. It is hoped to publish shortly this book entitled *Stone Age Tools : Their Techniques and Functions*.

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A detailed bibliography is also not being given at the end of the book, because a full bibliography of Indian prehistory and protohistory is under preparation and it is hoped to publish the same in a short time. At present only a select bibliography has been included.

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A work of an all-India character cannot be produced without the co-operation from several quarters—colleagues, friends and pupils. The writer, therefore, would be failing in his duty if he did not acknowledge this in some detail, though he is fully conscious that this is quite inadequate.

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To these—Drs. Z. D. ANSARI and S. B. DEO and K. D. BANERJEE, N. ISSAC, R. V. JOSHI, A. P. KHATRI, M. S. MATE, V. N. MISRA, G. C. MOHAPATRA, and G. G. MUJUMDAR and S. N. RAJGURU, Shri R. SINGH and the late Dr. B. SUBBARAO—the writer is indebted in no small measure. Though the various projects of explorations and excavations carried out at the Deccan College were initiated and guided by the writer, still, it was the completion of each of the projects, either singly or jointly, that has contributed to new knowledge. A special further acknowledgement is necessary when it is realised that some of these works are still unpublished and remain in the form of theses or reports under preparation. Every exploration by a pupil has given the author an opportunity to study new sites in different regions of India, such as Bellary, Karnatak, Kurnool, Malwa, Rajputana, Gujarat, the Panjab, Orissa, and Bengal. Thus it is the team work and co-operation which has helped the writer to produce this work.

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Outside the Institute, the same co-operation was ungrudgingly extended to him by Shri A. GHOSH, the present Director General of Archaeology in India and his Officers of the various Circles. Though it would be invidious to single out personalities, mention should be made of Sarvashri N. R. BANERJI, M. N. DESHPANDE, T. N. KHAZANCHI, B. B. LAL, S. R. RAO and B. K. THAPAR. The writer is particularly grateful to the last one for bringing to him the results of his small dig in Orissa and allowing him to use the material. For, this small dig fills in a large gap in our knowledge of the hiatus between the Neolithic and Palaeolithic in Eastern India and promises to be of great significance, if followed up more fully.

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To no less a degree the writer is indebted to Shri P. C. DAS GUPTA, Director of Archaeology, Government of West Bengal, for enabling him to visit the site of Rajar Dhipi and keeping him posted about his latest discoveries in the Ajay Valley. The author is also thankful to Professor G. R. SHARMA, Professor of Ancient Indian Culture and Archaeology, University of Allahabad, for similar courtesy shown to him; to Professor K. D. BAJPAI, Professor of Ancient Indian Culture and Archaeology, University of Saugar, for giving him an advance report on his excavations at Eran; to Dr. SATYAPRAKASH, Director of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Rajasthan, and Shri R. C. AGRAWAL, Superintendent of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Rajasthan; to Shri J. M. NANAVATI, Assistant Director of Archaeology, Government of Gujarat and his colleague Shri M. A. DHAKY; Dr. M. SESHADRI, Professor of Indology and Director of Archaeology, Mysore, who was kind enough to show him his finds from T. Narasipur during the exhibition held in Baroda in 1960 and Dr. M. G. DIKSHIT, Reader in Ancient Indian History, University of Nagpur. The author is also thankful to Dr. D. LAL and Professor M. G. K. MENON of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bombay, for their help in supplying him almost immediately the dates of the charcoal samples from his excavations at Ahar as well as Navdatoli and Nevasa. Likewise he is also indebted to Miss ELIZABETH RALPH of the Applied Science Centre for Archaeology, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A., for C-14 determinations of samples from Nevasa, Navdatoli and Chandoli.

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Considerable indebtedness is due to Dr. GLYN E. DANIEL and to Dr. A. H. DANI whose books *A Hundred Years of Archaeology* and *Prehistory and Protohistory in Eastern India* have been extensively utilized for writing the Introduction and Chapter IV, respectively.

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Thanks are also due to Dr. MOTICHANDRA, Director of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, who has shown deep interest in this work and has furthered its publication. Finally, I must thank all my colleagues in the Institute who have helped me in preparing the maps and drawings: Sarvashri N. A. KULKARNI, S. K. KULKARNI, P. R. KULKARNI, Y. S. RASAR, H. J. KUMTHEKAR, and R. B. SAPRE. Thanks are also due to Shri K. C. ALEXANDER and Shri M. D. BHANDARE for typing and retyping the matter over and over again.

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The author must express his thanks to the authorities of the Bombay University, particularly its Rector, Professor G. D. PARIKH, for kindly agreeing to print the lectures in the size suggested by the author and also agreeing to publish all the illustrations that were deemed necessary. He is also thankful to Shri V. G. MOGHE, Superintendent of Bombay University Press, and Shri B. A. OLKAR, Assistant Superintendent of Publications, University of Bombay, for their unfailing courtesy and for their willingness to incorporate new matter and illustrations even when the printing work was in progress.

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H. D. SANKALIA

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Deccan College, POONA, 7th December, 1962.

Post Script

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Since the book was written, an important development has taken place. The First International Conference on Asian Archaeology which met at New Delhi in December 1961 resolved that, that the Stone Age in India be divided provisionally into Early Stone Age (or Palaeolithic), Middle Stone Age, and Late Stone Age and the terms "Series II," "Middle Palaeolithic," "Mesolithic" be not used. Though the matter was not fully discussed in the Committee stage for want of time, this direction should be observed to avoid confusion in our discussion. Hence, wherever possible, these terms have been substituted or placed alongside the old ones. For the "Neolithic" no proper term based on culture-economic bases could be found; hence it has been retained, though it is quite unsatisfactory in terms of the known Indian data.

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H. D. S.