Prehistory and Protohistory in India and Pakistan c4.s32: Birth of Civilization
Prehistory and Protohistory in India and Pakistan c4.s32
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Birth of Civilization
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The Jains and the Brahmins also speculated and in one of the later accounts of the world's development, accidently hit upon the birth of civilization as now envisaged by archaeology These are briefly cited here.
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A Jaina tradition preserved by Puspadanta, the author of the Mahāpurāṇa (in Apabhraṃśa) while commenting on the statement of a much earlier work called Kalpasūtra says that before the king Nābhi there were kalpavrikṣas (wish-fulfilling trees), and so people could get what they liked. But during Nābhi's reign, these trees had disappeared. There was the first rainy season, but people did not know how to till and how to collect grains and so were starving. When this was the state of the people, Nābhi taught them to make earthen pots out of the temples of the elephant. He taught them to crush the grain with a pestle, to enkindle fire and to cook. He explained them the method of drawing a thread out of cotton and weaving cloth. Thus Nābhi and his son Ṛṣabhadeva were not only the first teachers of Jainism, but from the point of view we are discussing here, the bestowers of civilization.²⁸
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²⁸ For details see, SANKALIA, H. D., "Ṛṣabha or Ādinātha" in Jaina Antiquary, 1957, p. 82.
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CONTENTS
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FOREWORD . . . . . ix PREFACE . . . . . xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . XXIII
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*Introduction*
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PAGE | PAGE --- | --- India and Western Asia ... ... ... i | Geology . . . . . x Routes . . . . . i | Environmental Archaeology ... ... xi The Fertile Crescent ... ... ... i | Evolution of Man ... ... ... xi Diffusion of Civilization ... ... ... iii | Foundation of Museums ... ... xi Cul-de-Sac . . . . . iii | Three Ages . . . . . xii
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| Palaeontology and Archaeology ... xiii
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PHYSIO-CULTURAL DIVISIONS | Economic Bases ... ... ... xiii
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| Technological Stages ... ... ... xiv
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SIND and PANJAB ... ... ... v | Relative Chronology ... ... ... xiv U.P., BIHAR and BENGAL ... ... v | Discoveries in Western Asia ... ... xiv ASSAM . . . . . v | Human History ... ... ... xv MADHYA PRADESH ... ... ... v | Prehistory in India ... ... ... xv MAHARASHTRA . . . . . v | Indian Cosmogony ... ... ... xvi ANDHRA . . . . . vi | Birth of Civilization ... ... ... xvi KARNATAK or MYSORE Plateau ... vi | Antiquarianism Absent ... ... xvii KERALA . . . . . vi | New Impetus . . . . . xvii TAMILNAD . . . . . vi | Yale-Cambridge Expedition ... ... xvii ORISSA . . . . . vi | Indian Universities ... ... ... xvii GUJARAT . . . . . vi | Beginning of Protohistory ... ... xviii RAJPUTANA (Rajasthan) ... ... vii | Work Ahead . . . . . xviii Hilly and Forested Area ... ... vii | The Four Ages in India ... ... xix Attraction and Isolation ... ... vii | Palaeolithic . . . . . xix Civilization and Environment ... viii | Mesolithic (or Late Stone Age) ... xix Prehistory . . . . . ix | Neolithic . . . . . xx Archaeology ... ... ... ix | Bronze Age . . . . . xx Proto-history ... ... ... ix | Iron Age . . . . . xxi History of Prehistoric Archaeology ... x | Chronological Table ... ... xxi-xxii
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*Chapter I*
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LOWER PALAEOLITHIC CULTURE
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EARLY STONE AGE
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Geographical Survey ... ... 1 | Third Glacial . . . . . 4
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| Late Sohan Industry ... ... ... 5
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WEST PANJAB | Third Interglacial Terrace III ... 5
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| Fourth Glaciation Terrace IV ... 5
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De Terra's Work ... ... ... 1 | Evolved Sohan Industry ... ... 5 Siwaliks and Early Man ... ... 1 | Climatic and Stratigraphic Correlation 6 Nature of Evidence ... ... ... 2 | Industries . . . . . 6 Glacial and Interglacial Terraces ... 2 | Pre-Sohan Industry ... ... ... 6 Second Ice Age: Boulder Conglomerate 2 | Early Sohan Industry ... ... 6 Second Interglacial Terrace ... ... 4 | Pebble Tools: Choppers ... ... 8 Sohan and Handaxe Industries ... 4 | Chopping Tools ... ... ... 8
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| Flake Tools and Cores ... ... 8 | **MADRAS** |
| Late Sohan A ... ... ... 9 | |
| Late Sohan B ... ... ... 9 | Kortalayar Valley ... ... 37 |
| Evolved Sohan Industry ... ... 9 | Sequence of Cultures ... ... 38 |
| The Handaxe Industry ... ... 9 | Tools . . . . . 38 |
| Age and Culture Complex ... ... 10 | |
| Description : Illustrated Tools ... 10 | **KERALA** |
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EAST PANJAB
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MYSORE
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| Sirsa Valley ... ... ... 16 | Kibbanhalli Tools ... ... 39 |
| Beas and Banganga Valleys ... 20 | Malaprabha and Ghataprabha Basins 41 |
| | Stratigraphy ... ... ... 41 |
| **UTTAR PRADESH** | Tool Types ... ... ... 41 |
| | |
| Singrauli Basin ... ... ... 21 | **MAHARASHTRA** |
| Yamuna Valley ... ... ... 21 | |
| | Godavari Basin ... ... ... 43 |
| **BIHAR** | Tool Types ... ... ... 43 |
| | Other Rivers ... ... ... 43 |
| Roro Valley ... ... ... 23 | |
| Stratigraphy ... ... ... 24 | **KONKAN : Bombay Area** ... ... 46 |
| Tools . . . . . 24 | |
| | **GUJARAT** |
| **WEST BENGAL** | |
| | Sabarmati Valley ... ... ... 47 |
| Kangsabati Valley ... ... ... 27 | Climatic Cycles ... ... ... 47 |
| | Sites on the Sabarmati ... ... 50 |
| **ORISSA** | Tool Types ... ... ... 50 |
| | Possible Evolution ... ... 50 |
| Burhabalang Valley ... ... 27 | Mahi and other Valleys ... ... 50 |
| Evolution in Industry ... ... 28 | |
| Brahmani Basin ... ... ... 28 | **MADHYA PRADESH** |
| Climatic Phases ... ... ... 28 | |
| Tool Types and Stages ... ... 29 | Narbada Valley ... ... ... 51 |
| | De Terra's Stratigraphy ... ... 51 |
| **ANDHRA** | Nature of Industry De Terra... ... 51 |
| | Views : Later Workers... ... ... 52 |
| Geology ... ... ... 30 | Stratigraphy at Maheshwar ... ... 52 |
| Bhavanasi and other rivers ... ... 31 | Climatic Sequence ... ... ... 52 |
| Stratigraphic and Climatic Correlation 31 | Tools . . . . . 53 |
| Giddalur Tools ... ... ... 32 | |
| Pebble Tools : Significance ... ... 32 | **MALWA** |
| Krishna Valley ... ... ... 32 | |
| Karempudi ... ... ... 33 | Chambal Basin ... ... ... 54 |
| Nagarjunakonda ... ... ... 36 | Tools . . . . . 56 |
| Independent Chronological Evolution 36 | |
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RAJPUTANA . . . . . 56 Banas and Gambhiri Valleys ... 56 Luni Valley . . . . . 58 N.E. RAJPUTANA ... ... ... 58 Illustrated Tool Types ... 58 Distribution of Lower Palaeolithic Culture . . . . . 67 Ecological Approach ... ... 67 Sohan Man . . . . . 70 Hand-axe Man ... ... ... 70 Density of Palaeolithic Population ... 71
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Chapter II
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MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC CULTURES
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OF INDIA
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MIDDLE STONE AGE
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Discovery at Nevasa ... ... 72 Taminhal . . . . . 72 Maheshwar . . . . . 72 Other Regions ... ... ... 73 Stratigraphy ... ... ... 73 Nevasian . . . . . 73 Middle Palaeolithic or Middle Stone Age? 75 Evidence . . . . . 75 Mode of Occurrence ... ... 76 Environment ... ... ... 76 Tool Size . . . . . 77 Raw Material ... ... ... 77 Techniques . . . . . 77 Flake Culture (?) ... ... 78 Tool Types . . . . . 78
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MAHARASHTRA ... ... ... 78 Tool Percentage ... ... 81 Points . . . . . 81 Tanged Points ... ... ... 82 Borers . . . . . 82 Scrapers . . . . . 85
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KARNATAK . . . . . 87 Percentage . . . . . 90 Points . . . . . 90 Scrapers . . . . . 90 Borers . . . . . 91
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KURNOOL . . . . . 91 Stratigraphy ... ... ... 91
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ORISSA . . . . . 93 Stratigraphy ... ... ... 93 Tool Percentage ... ... 93 Tool Character ... ... 93 Burins . . . . . 94 Illustrated Types ... ... 94
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WEST BENGAL ... ... ... 96
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MALWA . . . . . 96 Illustrated Types ... ... 96
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RAJPUTANA . . . . . 96 Luni Valley ... ... ... 98 Past Climate ... ... ... 98 Stratigraphy ... ... ... 98 Raw Material ... ... ... 99 Hand-axes ... ... ... 99 Cleavers . . . . . 100 Tortoise Core ... ... ... 100 Flake Knives ... ... ... 100 Borers . . . . . 100 Borer-Scrapers ... ... ... 100 Points . . . . . 103 Bifacial Points ... ... ... 103 Scrapers . . . . . 103 Bundelkhand ... ... ... 104 Special Features ... ... 104
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OTHER SITES ... ... ... 105
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NAGPUR . . . . . 108 GUJARAT . . . . . 119
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Stratigraphy ... ... ... 108 SAURASHTRA-JETPUR ... ... ... 120 Upper Palaeolithic (?) ... ... 108 Distribution of Middle Palaeolithic BOMBAY AREA . . . . . 108 Culture . . . . . 120
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Re-examination of Todd's section ... 110 Chief Features . . . . . 122 Only One Deposit ... ... ... 110 Cultural Affinities . . . . . 122 Terraces . . . . . 112 Limitation . . . . . 123 Tools . . . . . 113 Origin . . . . . 123 No Handaxes . . . . . 116 Africa or Central Asia ... ... ... 123
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MESOLITHIC CULTURES OF INDIA
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Origin of the Term ... ... ... 125 MYSORE . . . . . 139 Stratigraphical Position ... ... 125 Types of Microliths ... ... ... 139 Environment . . . . . 125 Microliths . . . . . 126 NORTH KARNATAK ... ... ... 140 Mode of Occurrence ... ... ... 127 Microliths Derived from ... ... 128 MAHARASHTRA . . . . . 140 Upper Palaeolithic ... ... ... 128 Age and Distribution ... ... ... 129 SALSETTE ISLANDS, BOMBAY ... ... 141 Eastern India . . . . . 129 Tools . . . . . 141 BIRBHANPUR . . . . . 131 GUJARAT . . . . . 143 Site . . . . . 132 Tools . . . . . 132 LANGHNAJ . . . . . 143
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SINGRAULI BASIN, MIRZAPUR ... ... 132 Stratigraphy . . . . . 145 Past Climate . . . . . 146 ORISSA . . . . . 134 Tool Types . . . . . 148 Human Skeletons ... ... ... 148 ANDHRA . . . . . 134 Dentalium Shell Beads ... ... ... 148
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Mode of Occurrence ... ... ... 135 MALWA . . . . . 149 Nature of Microliths ... ... ... 135 MADHYA PRADESH ... ... ... 149 TINNEVELLY . . . . . 135 RAJPUTANA . . . . . 149 Sites . . . . . 136 Past Climate . . . . . 136 Antiquity of Microliths in India ... 151 Raw Material . . . . . 137 Environmental Change ... ... ... 151 Tool Types . . . . . 137
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NEOLITHIC AND CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES
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| | PAGE | | PAGE |
| Neolithic and Chalcolithic | ... | 152 | Some Pottery types | ... | 190 |
| Other Criteria | ... | 153 | Gilund Culture | ... | 194 |
| Distinction | ... | 154 | Sothi Culture | ... | 197 |
| Dating | ... | 154 | Malwa | ... | 197 |
| BRONZE AGE AND CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES OF NORTHERN, CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA | ... | 155 | NAVDATOLI CULTURE | ... | 197 |
| | | | Houses | ... | 198 |
| Indus or Harappa Civilization | ... | 155 | Pottery | ... | 199 |
| EAST PUNJAB AND GANGETIC VALLEY | ... | 156 | Food | ... | 200 |
| Sites in East Punjab | ... | 156 | Farmers | ... | 201 |
| Rupar | ... | 157 | Date | ... | 201 |
| Bara | ... | 158 | Eran and Tripuri | ... | 202 |
| Alamgirpur | ... | 158 | CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES OF THE DECCAN | ... | 202 |
| SAURASHTRA | ... | 159 | DIAMABAD | ... | 203 |
| NORTHERN RAJASTHAN | ... | 159 | NEVASA | ... | 203 |
| LOTHAL | ... | 164 | Houses | ... | 204 |
| Town | ... | 165 | Furniture | ... | 204 |
| Dockyard | ... | 165 | Pottery | ... | 204 |
| Ornaments | ... | 167 | Cotton, Silk and Flax | ... | 209 |
| Toys | ... | 167 | Ornaments | ... | 209 |
| Instruments | ... | 167 | Tools and Weapons | ... | 209 |
| Horse (?) | ... | 167 | Food | ... | 214 |
| Cemetery | ... | 168 | Burial | ... | 221 |
| Sati | ... | 168 | Racial Origin | ... | 222 |
| New Cultural Elements | ... | 168 | COPPER HOARDS OF THE GANGETIC BASIN | ... | 223 |
| RANGPUR | ... | 169 | NEOLITHIC CULTURES OF EASTERN AND SOUTH-EASTERN INDIA | ... | 225 |
| Rojadi and other sites | ... | 170 | ASSAM NEOLITHIC CULTURE | ... | 228 |
| Somnath | ... | 171 | Tool Types | ... | 229 |
| Amra | ... | 171 | Facetted Tool | ... | 229 |
| Rajputana—A Sea (?) | ... | 173 | Shouldered Tool | ... | 232 |
| Ports on the Makran Border | ... | 174 | Rounded Butt Axe | ... | 234 |
| Ancient Name of West Coast or Indus Civilization | ... | 175 | Axe with broad cutting edge | ... | 235 |
| End of the Indus Civilization | ... | 175 | Splayed Axe | ... | 235 |
| Origin | ... | 176 | Tanged Axe | ... | 236 |
| EARLY FOOD-PRODUCING CULTURES OF BALUCHISTAN AND INDO-PAKISTAN BORDER | ... | 177 | Wedge-blades | ... | 236 |
| | | | Grooved Hammerstone | ... | 237 |
| Origin of the Indus Valley Civilization | ... | 178 | BENGAL-BIHAR-ORISSA CULTURE COMPLEX | 238 |
| PROTOHISTORY: GANGETIC VALLEY AND PENINSULAR INDIA | ... | 181 | The Chittagong Hill Zone | ... | 238 |
| | | | Sub-montane Zone of the Himalayas | ... | 238 |
| PAINTED GREY WARE OR THE GAGENTIC CULTURE | ... | 182 | THE CHOTA NAGPUR PLATEAU | ... | 239 |
| | | | RAJAR DHIP | ... | 239 |
| AHAR CULTURE | ... | 187 | Chota Nagpur material | ... | 240 |
| | | | Round Butt Axe | ... | 241 |
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Wedge-shaped Axe . . . . . 242 Chisel . . . . . 242 Perforated Stones . . . . . 242 Shouldered Celts . . . . . 242 Hammerstones or Pounders ... ... ... 242 Origin of the Eastern Neolithic ... ... 243 Metal Prototypes . . . . . 244 Perforated Hammerstones ... ... ... 244 SOUTH-EAST INDIA . . . . . 245 BRAHMAGIRI . . . . . 248 PIKLIHAL . . . . . 250 Pottery . . . . . 251 Types . . . . . 252 Ground Stone Industry ... ... ... 257 Edge-Tools . . . . . 257 Axes . . . . . 257 Illustrations . . . . . 258 Adze . . . . . 261 Chisel . . . . . 261 Wedges . . . . . 262 Picks . . . . . 263 Borers or Pointed Hammers ... ... ... 263 Querns . . . . . 263 Hand-hammers . . . . . 263 Weights and Slickstones ... ... ... 263 Grooved or Belted Hammerstones ... ... 264 Mace-head or Ring-stone ... ... ... 264 Grinding Grooves . . . . . 264 Neolithic Blade Industry ... ... ... 264 Copper Chisel . . . . . 266 Terracotta Figurines ... ... ... 266 Human Skeleton . . . . . 267 Origin of the Neolithic Culture ... ... 267 KASHMIR . . . . . 268 SIGNIFICANCE OF— THE NEW DISCOVERIES IN INDIA ... ... 269 A Theory of Diffusion ... ... ... 269
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Aboriginal Tribes . . . . . 271 Aryan-Iranian Influence ... ... ... 271 Indigenous Origin ... ... ... 270, 274 SOME GENERAL PROBLEMS ... ... ... 274 Origin of Civilization ... ... ... 275 Paradox . . . . . 275 Partial Approach . . . . . 275 Concerted Project . . . . . 275 Is Sohan a different Culture? ... ... 276 Uniformity in Handaxe Culture ... ... 277 Ecological Studies . . . . . 277 Pleistocene Geology . . . . . 277 Absolute Dates . . . . . 278 River Terraces and Sea Levels ... ... 278 Mesolithic Problem . . . . . 278 Neolithic Question . . . . . 278 Significance of Pottery Groups ... ... 279 Puranic and Vedic Tribes ... ... ... 279 Iranian Penetration . . . . . 281 Black-and-Red Ware . . . . . 281 Iron Age . . . . . 282 Significance . . . . . 282 Horizontal Excavations ... ... ... 282
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APPENDIX A . . . . . 283 Terraces at Poona . . . . . 283
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APPENDIX B . . . . . 288 Terraces on the Narmada ... ... ... 288 Narmada Tool Sequence correlated with other regions of India ... ... 287
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Bibliography . . . . . 288
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Abbreviations . . . . . 306
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Index . . . . . 307