Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Prehistory and Protohistory in India and Pakistan c6.s14: Rajputana

Prehistory and Protohistory in India and Pakistan c6.s14

Language
English

Contents

Rajputana

Banas and Gambhiri Valleys

c6.s14.t1.1

The nature of the stratigraphy and tools is not much different in the Berach, Gambhiri, the Banas and other tributaries of the Chambal, and the Chambal itself which starting from Malwa plateau flows north-westwards into the Jamuna. Large collections have been made from the Gambhiri near Chitorgarh¹²⁴ and Nimbahera,¹²⁵ from Tajpura¹²⁶ on the Ruparel, from Nagari¹²⁷ on the Berach, from the Wagan,127a from Sonita¹²⁸ and Bhainsrorgarh¹²⁹ and a number of sites¹³⁰ on the Chambal. Stratified deposits exist at only some four places. And it is also claimed by Rao that there are terraces near Chulia falls, and at Sonita on the Chambal. But unless detailed studies of these large and varied collections are published,¹³¹ no proper idea can be had of the stratigraphy or the industries. Rao's further contention that pebble tools show Sohan influence hence also remains unproved. The few details about stratigraphy and the examination of tool types does not show any striking departure from what one finds in Northern Gujarat or Malwa.

c6.s14.t1.2

¹²⁴ I.A.R., 1954-55, p. 58. In 1962 this site was carefully surveyed by the writer and large collections of all types of tools made. They show the same mixture of crude and fine tools.

c6.s14.t1.3

¹²⁵ Ibid.

c6.s14.t1.4

¹²⁶ Ibid.

c6.s14.t1.5

¹²⁷ Ibid., 1955-56, p. 68.

c6.s14.t1.6

127a The writer and his colleagues discovered a very rich stratified site on the Wagan, about 8 miles south-west of Chitor.

c6.s14.t1.7

¹²⁸ I.A.R., 1956-57, p. 5.

c6.s14.t1.8

¹²⁹ Ibid.

c6.s14.t1.9

¹³⁰ Ibid., 1958-59, p. 27 and p. 72.

c6.s14.t1.10

¹³¹ For the Berach and Gambhiri see KHATRI, A. P., "The Stone Age Tools of the Gambhiri Basin," JUB., (1958).

c6.s14.t1.11

The same is the story on the Banas 120 miles of which has been surveyed by DR. V. N. MISRA.¹³² Of some ten sites, the site near Hamirgarh, District Bhilwara, offers a good section viz. 6 ft. of gravel capped by nearly 15 ft. of silt.¹³³ The tools comprise hand-axes, cleavers, choppers, large Clactonian flakes and huge pebble cores.

c6.s14.t1.12

¹³² I.A.R., 1958-59, p. 41., and MISRA, V. N., The Stone Age Cultures of Rajputana, Ph.D. thesis in Archaeology, University of Poona and Deccan College, Library, 1961.

c6.s14.t1.13

¹³³ *Ibid.*, p. 45.

c6.s14.t1.14

PALAEOLITHIC SITES IN RAJASTHAN

c6.s14.t1.15

Fig. 24. Palaeolithic Sites in Rajasthan.

Luni Valley

c6.s14.t2.1

Westwards, however, the picture seems to be different. A careful search of the Luni¹³⁴ by MISRA in Marwar has revealed very few early palaeolithic sites. This is, as pointed out before, due to particular environment—dry desert conditions and want of raw material. The few hand-axes that occur are small and seem to belong to a different culture complex, which will be discussed in the next chapter.

c6.s14.t2.2

¹³⁴ *Ibid.*, p. 42.

N.E. Rajputana

c6.s14.t3.1

In north-eastern Rajasthan, the hand-axe culture appears once again. At Bhangarh, (District Alwar, north-east of Jaipur), on the Sanvan, another affluent of Chambal, a stratified deposit consisting of two gravel beds intercalated by silt and capped again by silt have yielded pebble tools, hand-axes and Levallois type flakes.¹³⁵

c6.s14.t3.2

¹³⁵ *I.A.R.*, 1955-56, p. 68 and SOUNDARA RAJAN, A.I., No. 14 (1958), p. 84.

c6.s14.t3.3

Recently a few palaeoliths were reported from Barha, near Gwalior¹³⁶ and the ridge near Delhi, while further northwards they occur in the Second Interglacial deposits on the Sohan in the Panjab and later again with developed Acheulian forms in a terrace of the Third Glacial at Chauntra.

c6.s14.t3.4

¹³⁶ *Ibid.*, p. 72.

c6.s14.t3.5

Thus a continuous chain of sites from the north to south on the west and on the east of India have given a glimpse of the hand-axe culture. It was not absent from the heart of India as well. In very recent explorations in the rivers (See Fig. 25) of Central India, viz. the Bina and Betwa in the Districts of Bhilsa, Saugar,¹³⁷ Lalitpur and in the Banda District near Allahabad,¹³⁸ around Nagpur,¹³⁹ Jabalpur¹⁴⁰ and further south in the Tapti Valley in West Khandesh,¹⁴¹ palaeoliths are being found in large numbers.

c6.s14.t3.6

¹³⁷ *Ibid.*, 1958-59, p. 26 and p. 27, and 1959-60, p. 70.

c6.s14.t3.7

¹³⁸ *Ibid.*, 1954,55, p. 4.

c6.s14.t3.8

¹³⁹ *Ibid.*, 1958-59, pp. 18 and 68 and 1959-60, p. 21.

c6.s14.t3.9

¹⁴⁰ *Ibid.*, 1958-59, p. 27.

c6.s14.t3.10

¹⁴¹ *Ibid.*, 1958-59, p. 24; 1960-61, p.

c6.s14.t3.11

Of these no details can be given at present, as the reports are not published. But a feature of tools from Lalitpur collected by Shri SINGH of the Deccan College may be mentioned.141a Though the material is very coarse sandstone, still the various types of hand-axes and cleavers—majority on flakes—are very symmetrically made.

c6.s14.t3.12

141a After writing this, the writer examined the site at Lalitpur. It is a veritable factory site.

Illustrated Tool Types

c6.s14.t4.1

Since almost the same types of tools appear in the hand-axe area, only important types—some most common and a few rare—are here illustrated from the collections in the Deccan College.

c6.s14.t4.2

EARLY AND MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC SITES IN BUNDELKHAND AND E. MALWA

c6.s14.t4.3

Fig. 25.

c6.s14.t4.4

1-3 Pear-shaped hand-axe with a broad, pebble butt. Deep flake scars removed by stone hammer. From the Karjan river, Rajpipla, dolerite, 13.9 cm. x 9.2 cm. x 6.7 cm.

c6.s14.t4.5

4-5 Rostrocarinate type hand-axe, having a large flake removed from the underside, the upper shows an uneven keel, with cortex near the butt, the point is beak-like. Stone hammer technique. From the Pravara river, Nevasa, dolerite, 15.2 cm. x 7.1 cm. x 7.5 cm.

c6.s14.t4.6

6-8 Triangular type of hand-axe, fully flaked by stone hammer, and possibly also by a soft hammer technique. Tip of point broken, wavy edge. From the Karjan, Rajpipla, dolerite, 12.7 cm. x 6.7 cm. x 4.2 cm.

c6.s14.t4.7

9-10 Discoid, possibly used as a scraper; flaked all round by stone hammer technique leaving a patch of cortex in the centre. From the Malaprabha, Khyad, quartzite, 7.6 cm. x 8.1 cm. x 3.2 cm. cf. Mousterian core.

c6.s14.t4.8

Fig. 27

c6.s14.t4.9

1-3 Large, double-pointed hand-axe, almost fully flaked, leaving small patches of cortex in the centre on one surface and at the butt. Rather a rare form and may be called a pick as well. From the Malaprabha, Khyad, dark-grey quartzite, 25.6 cm. x 8.9 cm. x 6.9 cm.

c6.s14.t4.10

4-6 Side chopper or a hammer with a convex, projecting broad point, the surfaces and butt having cortex, but intentionally flaked at the side for a suitable hand hold. A unique specimen. From the Pravara, Nevasa, dolerite, 13.8 cm. x 8.8 cm. x 6.8 cm.

c6.s14.t4.11

7-8-9 Side scraper or chopper, flat flake under surface but surface fully flaked so also the side to facilitate hafting. From the Pravara, Nevasa, dolerite.

c6.s14.t4.12

Fig. 28

c6.s14.t4.13

1-3 Elongated pear-shaped hand-axe with a pebble butt. Shallow flake scars giving a smooth surface and symmetrical outline suggest improved technique like the soft hammer. Note the reduction in the thickness (side view). This may be intentional, but also depends upon the original size of the material—pebble or flake. From the Malaprabha, Khyad, light grey quartzite, 18.8 cm. x 9.4 cm. x 5.1 cm.

c6.s14.t4.14

4-6 Large almond-shaped hand-axe. Beautifully flaked by stone hammer and soft hammer technique resulting in a very symmetrical form. A few flat patches of cortex perhaps intentionally left. Biconvex section. From the Malaprabha, Khyad, fine red jaspery quartzite, 18.8 cm. x 11.4 cm. x 4.7 cm. Originally a fine cleaver in the same material was found at this site, but later lost in transit.

c6.s14.t4.15

7-9 Small, pointed, ovate. Minutely worked all over on both faces by soft hammer technique. Section biconvex to lenticular. From the Sabarmati, Pedhamli, Fine grained, banded, brownish quartzite, 10 cm. x 8.6 cm. x 3.4 cm.

c6.s14.t4.16

Fig. 29

c6.s14.t4.17

No typological evolution in cleavers has been demonstrated in any of the Deccan College Collections—which are fairly large—either from Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat or Central India. They are all on flakes, and depending upon their nature—thickness etc., the section is parallelogrammatic or otherwise. Rough approximation of the former may be seen in Fig. 29, nos. 3-4 and 7-8 and Fig., 30 3-4. Hence cleavers with different types of cutting edges and/or butt only are here illustrated.

c6.s14.t4.18

1-2 Cleaver with broad convex cutting edge and narrow tapering butt. Longitudinal sides trimmed from both surfaces. Cutting edge possibly retouched and shows signs of use. From the Malaprabha, Khyad, fine grained chocolate coloured quartzite, 16.6 cm. x 14.4 cm. x 3.4 cm.

c6.s14.t4.19

Fig. 26. Pebble-butted hand axe (1-3); Rostrocarinate-like tool (4-5); Abbevillian handaxe (6-8); Discoid Scraper (9-11) (†).

c6.s14.t4.20

Fig. 27. Double-pointed handaxe (1-3); Hammer-cum-Chopper (4-6); Side-Scraper (7-9) ‡

c6.s14.t4.21

Fig. 28. Acheulian handaxes : Pear-shaped (1-3) ; Ovate (4-6) ; Cordate (7-9) (½).

c6.s14.t4.22

3-4 Cleaver with a slightly convex, flaring edge and pointed butt, made on a side flake; the cutting edge possibly retouched, as well as one portion of the underside, and most of the upper surface; section parallelogrammatic. From the Malaprabha, Khyad, brownish quartzite, 13 cm. × 10 cm. × 8 cm.

c6.s14.t4.23

5-6 Large oblique-edged cleaver with a broad u-shaped butt, retaining some part of cortex. Both the thick longitudinal sides are flaked. From the Pravara, Nevasa, dolerite, 13 cm. × 9 cm. × 4.5 cm.

c6.s14.t4.24

7-8 Large straight-edged cleaver with a pointed butt and made on a side flake, which seems to have been removed as in Vaal technique; upper surface fully flaked, section parallelogrammatic. From the Pravara, Nevasa, dolerite, 15.2 cm. × 8.5 cm. × 4 cm.

c6.s14.t4.25

9-10 Large cleaver with straight edge and broad u-shaped butt on an end flake. The two longitudinal sides as well as the edges have been retouched. Portion of the underside step flaked. Butt end retains patches of cortex, whitish quartzite (now slightly) patinated, 14.2 cm. × 11.5 cm. × 6 cm.

c6.s14.t4.26

Fig. 30

c6.s14.t4.27

1-2 Large cleaver with flaring sides and cutting edge having a concavity, on a very thick end flake. From the buried channel of the Godavari near Gangapur, Nasik, dolerite, rolled with smooth, glossy, pecked surface, 14 cm. × 15 cm. × 4.8 cm.

c6.s14.t4.28

3-4 Cleaver with (an intentionally made) concave edge with slightly flaring sides and a symmetrical but narrow u-shaped butt, which has been flaked on both surfaces so that a continuous wavy edge runs all round the tool. From the Malaprabha, Khyad, reddish banded quartzite, 13.5 cm., × 9 cm. × 5 cm.

c6.s14.t4.29

5-6 Small cleaver, with straight cutting edge, and broad u-shaped butt, on an end flake the longitudinal sides and the butt slightly trimmed. Locality etc. as in 1-2, 8 cm. × 7.³ cm. × 4 cm.

c6.s14.t4.30

Fig. 31 and Pl. II (Halftone, at the end)

c6.s14.t4.31

1 Pyriform or fish-like hand-axe, roughly biconvex, fully flaked on both sides by fine 'step' technique and subsequent retouch along the edge, leaving the central, flat, tabular patch of original cortex on either side; one surface or side quite fresh, as if in mint condition, and a half of the other which was exposed, weathered and with effaced flake-scars. In situ at the junction of Gravel II and upper reddish silt. Nevasa, dolerite, 21.³ cm. × 10.8 cm. × 4.2 cm.

c6.s14.t4.32

³ A miniature variety of the above type, but very symmetrical, having very sharp edges, and roughly parallelogrammatic section. Nevasa, Locality VI, surface, dolerite, 12.1 cm. × 5.4 cm. × 3.7 cm.

c6.s14.t4.33

Fig. 32 and Pl. III (Halftone, at the end)

c6.s14.t4.34

1-2 Hand-axe, elongated, pear-shaped with a heavy butt, having a median ridge on either side, so that the section is parallelogrammatic. Nevasa, Locality VI, surface, dolerite, 17.⁴ cm. × 10.0 cm. × 5.0 cm.

c6.s14.t4.35

⁴ Small hand-axe, pipal leaf or heart-shaped. Flaked only along the margin on the upper side. Section biconvex. Nevasa, Locality VI, surface, dolerite, 10.8 cm. × 7.5 cm. × 4.3 cm.

c6.s14.t4.36

Fig. 29. Cleavers of various types: Convex-edged with tapering butt (1-4); Oblique or straight-edged with square or U-shaped butt (5-6); (9-10); Straight-edged with pointed butt (7-8) (†).

c6.s14.t4.37

Fig. 30. Cleavers: Concave-edged with tapering or pointed butt (1-4); Straight-edged with U-shaped butt (5-6) (⅖).

c6.s14.t4.38

Distribution of Lower Palaeolithic Culture (See Fig. 33)

c6.s14.t4.39

The Palaeolithic map of India is thus being rapidly filled up during the last twenty years. Barring Sind, Saurashtra and Kerala in the west, the district of Tinnevelly in the extreme south, and Assam, Nepal and Kashmir proper on the east, and north-east, the Early or Old Stone Age man seems to have roamed all over India and its frontiers including Burma.

c6.s14.t4.40

*Ecological Approach*

c6.s14.t4.41

However, the question now is, can we at this stage of our studies, make a more precise approach to his habitat and method of living, based on geographic, climatic and ecological considerations as is being now attempted in Western Europe and Africa?

c6.s14.t4.42

ZEUNER¹⁴² thought that the hand-axe was an excellent tool for digging up roots, grubs and other food from the ground (though it can be useful for many other purposes as well; for instance, for making notches in trees to facilitate climbing). Hence the hand-axe (or the Abbevillio-Acheulian) culture was of vegetable and grub gatherers. Desmond Clark¹⁴³ has however recently suggested that these were used as meat mattocks, hence the edges of these tools are rarely found blunted.

c6.s14.t4.43

¹⁴² ZEUNER, F. E., Dating the Past, p. 292.

c6.s14.t4.44

¹⁴³ See Current Anthropology, 1960, p. 315.

c6.s14.t4.45

Likewise, ZEUNER associated the makers of the large Clactonian flakes and hollow-scrapers with forests, and the Levalloisian and the Mousterians who made beautiful flakes in a specialized manner as typical hunters. For such flakes would be extremely suitable for cutting and dressing carcasses.

c6.s14.t4.46

MACBURNEY has recently studied the distribution of hand-axes and flakes in Western Europe and has postulated that the hand-axe makers preferred the low, maritime and warm regions, whereas the flake fabricators—the Levalloisian for instance—liked the upland which was comparatively colder. He admits,¹⁴⁴ however, that for the latter assertion the evidence is yet not much.

c6.s14.t4.47

¹⁴⁴ MACBURNEY, C. B. M., The Stone Age of Northern Africa (Pelican), p. 24 ff.

c6.s14.t4.48

Two difficulties face us in trying to apply these climatic and ecologic considerations in India. Firstly, we do not have such sharp climatic and regional differences, except the glacial and periglacial areas of the north and the warm or tropical regions of the rest of India, of course, with their varying hill and forest cover.

c6.s14.t4.49

Secondly, though we do have two separate cultures—one a pebble tool144∗ and flake culture, and the other hand-axe, both of equal antiquity, the former in its initial stages does not belong to a cold phase, unless we accept ZEUNER'S suggestion that the second interglacial and others might be mild glacial phases.

c6.s14.t4.50

144∗ Ibid., p. 26.

c6.s14.t4.51

144∗∗ Desmond CLARK has recently convincingly shown that the term "pebble culture" has little significance, because at Olduvai, below Bed I and above it, were found in association with hominid fossils, pebble tools as well as flakes and nodules, all forming an integral part of the culture. Thus he proposes that the term "Oldowan Culture" should replace the term "Pebble Culture." See ATTI Del VI Congresso Internazionale Delle Scienze Preistoriche E Protostoriche, G. C. Sansoni Editore, Rome, 1962, pp. 265-70.

c6.s14.t4.52

PHYSIOGRAPHICAL AND CULTURAL DIVISIONS OF INDIA AND LOWER PALAEOLITHIC CULTURES

c6.s14.t4.53

Fig. 33. Map showing the distribution of Lower Palaeolithic sites in relation to the Physiographical Divisions of India. (Add sites in Chanda District, Maharashtra)

c6.s14.t4.54

MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF SOAN TYPE TOOLS IN INDIA

c6.s14.t4.55

Fig. 34. Distribution of Sohan types of tools in India.

c6.s14.t4.56

Thirdly, the categories suggested by ZEUNER are not exclusive. The hand-axe people might have avoided thick forests, but it is unbelievable that they subsisted on vegetable and grub alone. They must have been hunters as well. Likewise, the people who specialized in flakes and were supposed to be hunters and forest-dwellers, could not have lived in thick forests, and flourished on animal food alone, granting that their tools were more suitable for cutting and dressing carcasses.

c6.s14.t4.57

With these proviso, we may emphasize the one or the other way of life, as suggested by the nature of the tools and their ecological distribution.

Cites (20)