Prehistory and Protohistory in India and Pakistan c7.s14: Luni Valley

Prehistory and Protohistory in India and Pakistan c7.s14

Language: English

Luni Valley

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Some knowledge of the culture in Western Rajputana, we owe to MISRA.⁵⁵ So far he has surveyed the Luni and its tributaries—Jojri, Reria, Bandi, Sukri, Lilri—at convenient points. The Luni alone seems to be important, for at some eight sites on it—Samdari (SMD), Dundara (DDR), Luni (LNI), Srikrishnapura (SKP), Golio (GLO), Hundgaon (HDG), Bhawi (BHW) and Pichak (PCK)—tools have been discovered.

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⁵⁵ MISRA, V. N., "Palaeolithic Culture of Western Rajputana" in *BDCRI*, Vol. 21 and Ph.D. thesis in Archaeology, Poona University and Deccan College Libraries, 1961.

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The region is rich geologically, but much of it is hidden by blown sand and alluvium. While the eastern zone preserves some of the oldest rock formations in the Aravallis—like the granites, quartzites and chists, the Western, on either side of the Luni and around Jodhpur, exhibits later formations—rhyolites (a volcanic rock), sandstones and limestones. The former—quartzite—has been principally used by Early Man in Eastern Rajputana. In the latter, his successor had to fall back upon occasionally on the high acidic rhyolites, but largely on the cherts and flints which form in the cavities of limestone.

Past Climate

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Though most of the tools have been collected from the river bed, the few *in situ* specimens and the factory sites indicate that the tools were made when the climate was much wetter than today. Only then the rivers in this part of Rajputana, which is mostly arid, could have carried gravels, which are—wherever observed—very well cemented. They lie on a basal bed of white clay, a disintegration of sandstone or (limestone?) and overlaid by sandy silt and huge deposits of windborne sand. The gravel is never more than 5 feet in thickness and contains small pebbles of crystalline rock as well as nodules of chert, flint etc. It is the latter which have formed the principal raw material for Palaeolithic man.

Stratigraphy

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The gravels are covered by a fairly thick deposit of brownish silt which is sandy in the upper horizon. Its thickness varies from 2 feet to 10 feet. While this feature is seen in other regions as well, it is so pronounced in Western Rajputana that one can definitely say that it is this sandy phase which heralded the extreme aridity following a gradual dryness and decreasing rainfall. Fast moving sand dunes, tuffas and salt pans which form the topography of the region, were the result.

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Thus the Palaeolithic culture definitely belongs to a past wet period in Western Rajputana. This on typological ground, as well as on the nature of gravel and silt is comparable to the second aggradational phase and the associated artefacts. MISRA has simply called it "Palaeolithic," but has nevertheless drawn our attention to the close affinity it bears to the Middle Palaeolithic Cultures of the Deccan, Central India, Orissa and Andhra-Karnatak.

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However, there are some differences. Though the dominant material is chert, it is so fine grained and of varied hues—white, grey, black, dark brown—that it resembles real flint, which is also present in a small quantity. In addition, there is silicified wood, sandstone, hardened slate, and rarely quartzite and rhyolite. Thus the raw material is certainly of a distinctively varied nature, and this has had some influence on the resultant tools. As elsewhere, suitable nodules have been converted into tools, but flint, fossil wood, and chert nodules are often in a state which cannot be readily used. These had to be flaked (broken intentionally), and hence the proportion of such flakes is higher than elsewhere. Three or four methods—anvil, punch, soft cylinder hammer and prepared core—have been followed, as is evident from a study of the cores and flakes. Particularly, striking is the last of which we have fine specimens of "tortoise core" and Levallois flakes.

Tool Types

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The tool types include: (1) Hand-axes or bifaces of various types, (2) Cleavers, (3) Scrapers of various types, (4) Borers, (5) Scraper-borers, (6) Points—Unifacial and Bifacial, (7) Flake Knives and (8) Flakes.

Hand-axes

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Since the number of hand-axes is small and their distribution limited in the Luni Basin, MISRA thinks that they belong to the Eastern Rajputana Stone Age complex rather than to the Western. Though this is probable, his Group B contains highly advanced Acheulian types. Made on thinnish flakes, with lenticular or plano-convex section, worked all over by shallow flaking, symmetrical in outline with a slightly wavy edge and above all small, they recall a similar form in Malwa, Gujarat, Central India(East), Mirzapur, Orissa, Andhra, Karnatak and Maharashtra. In the last four regions and in the adjoining Malwa (Mandasor) these small hand-axes and cleavers seem to belong to a transitional stage between the Early and Middle Palaeolithic or to the last stage of the former.

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Two of the hand-axes are here illustrated.

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(1) Pointed Ovate on a thick flake. Beautifully worked all over on both the surfaces by "step" and soft hammer technique. It is almost plano-convex in section, underside nearly flat, and the upper rounded. No. 55, LNI, brownish chert.

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(2) Pear-shaped hand-axe, fully worked on both the faces by step technique. Bears patches of thick encrustation. Quite fresh in mint condition. No. 128, DNR, grey chert.

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⁵⁶ MISRA, op. cit., p. 167.

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⁵⁷ Ibid.

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Cleavers (Fig. 47)

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This group is again small, but fully representative with "U," narrow or broad butt, and straight, oblique and splayed edge. Out of seven, six are made on flakes (one actually on a Levallois one), by an advanced technique. This is also the case at Gangapur, near Nasik, where the industry seems to be late Acheulian in character.

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Thus these groups of hand-axes and cleavers seem to be quite significant in the Palaeolithic history of Western Rajputana.

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(3) Cleaver⁵⁸ on a side-flake, with pointed butt, and broad straight sharp edge, parallelogrammatic section. From the upper surface a large flake has been removed as in Vaal technique, whereas the thick side has not been flaked. No. 83, LNI, pinkish rhyolite.

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⁵⁸ Ibid., p. 170.

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Tortoise Core (Fig. 47)

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The collection includes a number of fine tools on Levallois flakes, and fortunately also a large Levallois core.

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(4) A large "tortoise" core⁵⁹ from which one large triangular flake with a convex butt-end has been removed from one surface. Two flakes have also been detached from the undersurface of which one is of Levallois type. No. 1, HDG, flint, patinated.

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⁵⁹ Ibid., p. 200, pl. XXXVII, a. b.

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Flake Knives (Fig. 47)

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These seem to form a distinct category from side scrapers. Though there is a cutting edge along one side of the edge, and a thick hand-hold on the side opposite it, the edges are not made by retouch. In (i) the edge along the longer axis is perpendicular to the bulbar end, whereas in (ii) the transverse cutting edge is along the shorter axis, opposite the bulbar end.

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A specimen of each group is illustrated.

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(5) A knife⁶⁰ on a thick rectangular flake, clean undersurface with untrimmed platform, as also the thick longer side. The edge of the longer sloping side marked by use. No. 227, LNI, dark yellow patinated flint.

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⁶⁰ Misra, op.cit., p. 190, pl. XXXIII, 3a.

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(6) A knife⁶¹ on a thick flake, smaller than No. 227. No. 228, LNI, mottled chert.

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⁶¹ Ibid., pl. XXXIII, 3b.

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Borers (Fig. 46)

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These, as elsewhere, are prepared on thick flakes by one or two notches on either side of the tip or point.

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(1) Borer⁶² on a large Levallois-like, triangular end flake, having erased bulb and a platform with one made facet, angle almost 90°; upper surface almost flat. Borer tip made by a bold rather careless retouch along two sides. The tip is thick and looks unfinished. No. 111, DNR, white chert, patinated yellow.

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⁶² Ibid., p. 182, pl. XXXIV, 1.

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Borer-Scrapers (Fig. 46)

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This is a characteristic tool of this culture. And it is interesting to note that a tool almost identical in nature, but on a much larger flake, has been recorded from Eastern Rajputana and from Maheshwar on the Narmada in Central India.

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Fig. 46. Points, Borers-and-Scrapers, Rajasthan (1/2).

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Fig. 47. Small hand-axes, Cleaver, Flake-Knives and Tortoise Core, Rajputana. (4)

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(2) Borer-Scraper⁶⁵ on a large sub-tringular flake. The borer point is achieved by removing a deep flake from either side of the point, but once from the top surface, and then from the under surface. Thus a narrow projecting point has resulted. To get effective scraping edges, the upper sides are marginally retouched, and deep flakes are detached from the under surface. Then to facilitate hafting, one more flake is removed from the bottom and the rear of the butt end. Very fine tool. No. 38, SNG, black basic lava.

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⁶⁵ Ibid., p. 182, pl. XLI, 2.

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Points (Fig. 46)

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Unlike other regions, Western Rajputana has two kinds of points : (i) Unifacial, (ii) Bifacial.

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Unifacial Points

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This group includes types which are, (a) Carefully prepared, unretouched flakes, (b) partly or fully retouched on both sides. Further divisions may be made according to the size and thickness of specimens.

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Characteristic types of each group and sub-groups are illustrated.

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Bifacial Points

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The finished specimens are thin, and seem to be made on flakes by careful, soft cylinder hammer technique. Without median ridge, bilaterally symmetrical, they seem to be miniature hand-axes. Though comparatively few, these tools constitute a new feature of the industry, not so far observed elsewhere except in Kurnool.⁶⁶ Those from the teris of South India are pressure flaked and truly microlithic in character.

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⁶⁶ See, ISAAC, op. cit., pl. LXX, fig. 166-7.

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(3) Bifacial Point⁶⁷ on a thick triangular flake. The top of upperside retains cortex, but the sides are carefully trimmed by step-technique. The undersurface is fully flaked similarly and the scars seem to meet near the thick butt. No. 110, LNI, grey chert.

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⁶⁷ MISRA, op. cit, 188, pl. XLV, p. 5.

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(4) Point⁶⁸ on a thin leaf-like Levallois-type flake, without, however, any real platform. No sharp point, and the sides seem to be indented by use. No. 118, LNI, yellowish flint.

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⁶⁸ Ibid., p. 198, pl. XXXV, 2.

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(5) Point⁶⁹ on a triangular flake, plain platform with cortex, diffused bulb, 110° angle. Both margins completely retouched from the upper surface. No. 1, DDR, brownish chert.

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⁶⁹ Ibid., p. 186, pl. XIV, 5.

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Scrapers (Fig. 46)

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They fall into two groups :

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(i) Scrapers with sharp cutting edge along one side or at the end of the flake or pebble, and a thick back or side opposite the edge for hand-hold. The edge is made by rather largish flake scars.

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(ii) Scrapers, smaller and lighter, mostly made on flakes, but of Levallois type few. Specimens with cortex on one side or even chunk or pebble used. Retouch marginal and fine and some at least by pressure technique.

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There is a cruder sub-group made on pebbles or chunks and marked by an indeterminable retouch.

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As elsewhere, this Group includes (a) Side Scrapers, (b) End Scrapers, (c) Hollow Scrapers and (d) Round Scrapers.

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A few specimens of each variety are illustrated. (Fig. 46)

Side Scraper

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(6) Side Scraper⁶⁸ on an ovalish flake having flat undersurface, and traces of lime encrustation, bulb not distinct. The convex side on the upper surface is carefully retouched to give a scraper edge. No. 14, SKP, in situ, greenish chert.

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⁶⁸ Ibid., p. 176, pl. XLIII, 3.

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(7) Side Scraper⁶⁹ on a thick pointed ovoid flake, underside has a fine narrow bulb and wide-angled platform. On the upper surface, one side retains the cortex, whereas the other longer side has four steep scalloped scars, and the edge bears traces of use, flint.

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⁶⁹ Ibid., p. 72, pl. XLII, 8.