The Personality of India: Pre- and Proto-historic Foundation of India and Pakistan c14.s1.t4: Malwa Plateau

The Personality of India: Pre- and Proto-historic Foundation of India and Pakistan c14.s1.t4

Language: English

Malwa Plateau

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Moving south-west from the Gangetic basin into Central India and the Malwa plateau, we find an altogether different sequence. The explorations of V. S. Wakankar and A. V. Pandya, followed by the large scale excavations at Maheshvar by the Deccan College Research Institute and the University of Baroda¹ and of Tripuri by M. G. Dikshit have enabled us to get a clear picture. Here we have very widespread settlements in the valleys of the Chambal and the Narbada of a people using a painted pottery characterized by black designs on red or cream slipped pottery and a highly specialized microlithic blade industry employing the technique of crested guiding ridges and the elaborate preparation of cores, simulating the well-known " *Grand Pressigny* " technique of Europe. From an analysis of nearly 7000 specimens from the excavations at Maheshvar the whole technique of manufacture of these blades was studied by the writer. It is essentially intended to mass-produce blades. This technique is definitely identified in Western Asia and the Aegian region. In India, it seems to be associated for the first time with the Indus Valley Civilization. This Proto-historic culture of Malwa can be approximately dated to the 1st half of the 1st millennium B.C. or earlier on account of its stratigraphic position below the deposits of N.B.P. Its contemporaneity with the Grey ware cultures is indicated by the common association with both of the black-and-red ( usually associated with megaliths in the South) in the Bikaner region. Near Udaipur, this black-and-red ware has been found with black-on-red painted ware. At Maheshvar, this ware occurs with the earliest painted pottery culture, but it becomes predominant in the following phase characterized by the appearance of iron (sickle, arrowheads, hoe spearheads, nails, etc.) and N.B.P. (Fig. 29)

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¹ SANKALIA, H. D., SUBBARAO, B., DEO, S. B., "Archaeological sequence of Central India", *South Western Journal of Anthropology*, New Mexico, Vol. IX, No. 4, 1953.

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These excavations at Maheshvar-Navdatoli were again renewed under the joint auspices of the Deccan College Research Institute, the University of Baroda and the Department of Archaeology, Madhya Pradesh (1957-58). During this season, the Chalcolithic settlement on the south bank of the river Narbada was excavated horizontally. It revealed nearly a dozen floor levels of prosperous agricultural communities cultivating cereals, grams and pulses (now being identified. They lived in square and round huts of wattle and daub construction and walls reinforced with thick round posts. As a result of conflagrations the settlement seems to have been disturbed at least thrice. On this basis, the occupation was divided into four phases. The earliest is characterized by the widespread use of cream slipped wares with black paintings, very reminiscent in forms and decorations to those of Sialk. With it occurs a painted variety of black-and-red pottery, suggesting contacts with Eastern Rajputana and the type site Ahar. Five large copper celts were found. While some of them have straight sides with convex edges, one has a distinct shoulder and crescentic-edge, suggesting affinity with the Gangetic valley. In the next phase, the black-and-red painted ware gradually declines in quantity and we see the appearance of certain

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NARMADA VALLEY EXPEDITION 1952-53

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MAHESHVAR

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| SEQUENCE OF CULTURES | TRENCH I | TRENCH II | TRENCH III | TRENCH III EXT. |
| MUSLIM-MARATHA VII | ʘ | ʘ | ʘ | |
| GAP | | | | |
| EARLY HISTORIC VI 200-500 AD | ʘ | ʘ ʘ | ʘ | |
| EARLY HISTORIC V 100 B.C-200 AD | ʘ | ʘ ʘ | ʘ | |
| EARLY HISTORIC IV 400 B.C-100 B.C | | ʘ ʘ | ʘ ʘ | ʘ ʘ |
| III PROTO HISTORIC | | ʘ ʘ ʘ ʘ ʘ ʘ ʘ | ʘ ʘ ʘ ʘ ʘ ʘ ʘ | ʘ ʘ |
| GAP | | | | |
| PREHISTORIC II | | | | |
| GAP | | | | |
| PREHISTORIC I | | | | |

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NAVDATOLI

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Fig 29.

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Post-Harappan ceramics comparable to Somnath Ib and Rangpur IIb-IIc. Again the last two phases provide a link with the other Chalcolithic sites like—Jorwe in Maharashtra. A few specimens of typical lustrous red wares of Rangpur IIc—III and Somnath II occur in the last phase. Thus the two elements that have contributed to the Chalcolithic cultures of Malwa seem to be a few Post-Harappan traits and a new element from Iran. This has great possibilities and the material is being studied at present. (Fig. 30)

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About the chronology of the site, the new evidence from Ujjain and Nagda can be used to take back the dates of the Early Historic N.B.P. and Pre-N.B.P. phases on the basis of the phase I of Ujjain (700-500 B.C.). On the evidence of the ceramic studies and connections with Iran also, the Chalcolithic phase can be dated to 1200-700 B.C.

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Since the manuscript was sent to the press, very important data on the chronology of this site has come from the C-14 laboratory of the Pennsylvania University, U.S.A. I am very much obliged to them and Dr. H. D. Sankalia, who promptly permitted me to use these dates.

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Thus we have a very consistent dating provided by four runs of this site to between 1500-1000 B.C. In view of the generally cautious chronology adopted in this text, it is very pleasing to note that these cultures can be pushed back slightly, as also the corresponding contemporary cultures. Till this data is finally integrated and interpreted, this whole chronological fabric based on relative chronology may be treated as provisional. (See Figs. 29 & 30).

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NAVDATOLI 1957-58

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Fig. 30.

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| PHASE IV | SAME WARES AS IN III BUT WITH MORE OF THE JORWE TYPE AND TYPICAL LUSTROUS RED WARE OF RANGPUR/MAHESHWAR. | |
| PHASE III | APPEARANCE OF COARSE WELL FIRED WARE OF THE JORWE TYPE WITH MALWA WARE IN A SMALLER QUANTITY. | |
| PHASE II | CREAM SLIPPED WARE-A COARSER TYPE-NO PAINTED BLACK-AND-RED WARE AND WITH A THICK RED SLIP. | |
| PHASE I | CREAM SLIPPED WARE-PAINTED BLACK-AND-RED WARE. | |

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(Diagram showing stratigraphic layers K, L, M with various floors and labels)

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VII. Copper celts from Navdatoli, opposite Maheshvar, Madhyapradesh.

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In this connection, it will not be out of place to discuss a very interesting phenomenon at the north western edge of the Malwa plateau and the adjoining Indo-Gangetic divide about the beginning of the first millennium B. C. or a little earlier. Unfortunately, we are not in a position to gauge the full significance of it because of our ignorance of the position on the other side of the Indo-Pakistan frontier. Our knowledge of the position inside the Indian frontier, however, tends to suggest that the Bikaner area was some sort of a rendezvous with various elements apparently converging, but in fact diverging from this point. The significance of this which one may call the "Proto-Historic-Tri-junction" (Fig. 31) cannot be over-emphasized and calls for immediate attention. This also brings into prominence the role of the Aravallis and the Vindhyas in Indian archaeology. The Harappan civilization spread along the river Ghaggar (Vedic Sarasvati) into the Bikaner area. But it does not seem to cross the Aravallis. The second element is the Grey Ware culture. The authors of this culture seem to have moved straight from the Upper Indus basin into the Gangetic, as already described. They never used any stone implements and they also carried the urban tradition into the Gangetic valley and established the first towns and villages. The second, but more interesting element is constituted by the small quantities of black-and-red ware, occurring in association with the Grey ware in the Bikaner area.¹

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¹ As will be shown in the section dealing with Rajputana and Gujarat the persistence of a homogeneous ceramic zone, characterized by the continuous use of a Black-on-Red painted tradition into the early historic period, indicated by the excavations at Rangmahal, Bhinmal, Vadnagar and Vasai is very significant. Aravallis again constitute the eastern boundary of this zone and the difference in the ceramic sequence between the sites on either side in Mewar and Marwar speaks eloquently of this geographical influence on Indian archaeology.

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This pottery gradually makes its appearance in the Malwa plateau and even in Kathiawad peninsula with the local painted pottery cultures. But in Malwa, it becomes dominant in the next phase, contemporary with the N.B.P. It is very interesting to note the influence of Grey ware on other ceramic forms. Apart from the technique of decoration and surface treatment, some of the basic forms (especially utilitarian types like shallow dishes with incurved sides and beaked or beaded rims, rimless bowls, etc.) commonly occur in the Grey wares, N.B.P., Gangetic valley black wares and even the Black-and-Red wares. The further development of the forms and techniques also add to the story. While the Grey wares carry their technical tradition into the N.B.P., the technique of inverted firing continues in Central India and Maharashtra and develops into the highly specialized funerary forms of the megaliths (Fig. 42). What about the position of metals?

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² The recent excavations at Rupar and Lothal have very much complicated the problem of this pottery. Their alleged occurrence, even in a Late Harappan context makes it very early. Hence the earlier occurrence does not in any way conflict with the discussion in this paper. But the most crucial area for urgent further investigations seems to be the Proto-Historic-Tri-junction shown in Fig. 31.

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[Figure: STRUCTURAL MAP OF CENTRAL INDIA SHOWING PROTO-HISTORIC TRI-JUNCTION Ⓗ HARAPPAN SITES ◉ RED-AND-BLACK WARES ◎ PAINTED GREY WARE SITES ⦿ RED-ON-BLACK PAINTED WARES ▲ SITES WITH BLACK-ON-RED PAINTED WARES (PENINSULAR CHALCOLITHIC COMPLEX) IN THE EARLY CENTURIES A.D.]

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The tools in the kits of these Proto-historic settlers of Malwa clearly show that these people used heavy copper celts—derived from the East as well as the West. Further south in Maharashtra also, we have heavy copper flat celts associated with it. At Maheshvar, a few fragments of copper-like rods and a fish hook were found in the excavation. There is no suggestion of a violent displacement of the painted pottery culture at Maheshvar, but one of a long overlap and gradual displacement. But in the second period, where we have definite evidence of iron, there are 31 feet of deposits of black-and-red ware out of a total of about 47 feet of occupational debris, in the main trench on the north bank of Narbada. Within this 31 feet of debris, characterized by the presence of N.B.P., punch-marked coins, etc., the difference in height between the lowest and the highest occurrence of N.B.P. is about 20 feet.

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At Ujjain a similar sequence was repeated, but N. R. Banerji divided this earliest phase on the basis of N.B.P. The earliest is characterized by the occurrence of black-and-red pottery, iron, etc., without N.B.P. In his latest report he has dated this period to 700-500 B.C. Very significantly this phase shows affinities to Kausambi and Ahichehatra by the occurrence of "double slipped wares with thin black evanescent slip or wash over a red ware". Thus this is very significant and explains the culture gap between the Chalcolithic and Historic phases at Maheshvar. At Maheshvar, N.B.P. is absent in the lowest 13 feet of the deposits with black-and-red ware and iron.¹

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¹ Indian Archaeology 1957-58 A review. New Delhi. 1958. p. 34.

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In view of the close association in time and space of these two cultures, whose movements into the Deccan peninsula can be traced by a number of well-spaced excavations, one is tempted to observe that it is not possible to make a fine theoretical distinction between copper and iron, at least in Central India. At best we can postulate two very closely-spaced movements. It is very interesting to note that the inter-mingling of these two cultural elements in Malwa and their co-existence is vouched by the evidence north of the Vindhyas. But curiously, this association does not persist in Maharashtra, and the earliest levels both at Nasik and Nevasa have not shown the association of the Black-and-Red ware. Here, as in Malwa, the Early Historic Period is characterized by the use of the same pottery with N.B.P. This raises grave issues of chronology and inter-relations, which await further stratigraphic evidence. Probably the 'Vindhyan Complex' can account for this curious phenomenon.

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Besides, by about 1000 B.C. iron had spread almost to the borders of Pakistan. Gowland² has already pointed out that a transition from copper to iron is not very difficult. Whereas copper would require temperatures in the neighbourhood of 1100 F. for smelting, it is possible to extract iron from the ores at about 700 F. He also referred to the existence of primitive open furnaces in south India.

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² GOWLAND, WILLIAM. The Metals in Antiquity, Huxley Memorial Lecture 1912, Royal Anthropological Institute, pp. 277-8.

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This assumption of a knowledge of metal technology, in contrast to that of any single metal at such a late stage, would not in any way conflict with the existence of a copper age in the Gangetic basin. The very difference in the cultural milieu and the distinct possibility of copper occurring earlier than the Grey wares in the Gangetic basin, would account for it. On the other hand, this would emphasize the position of raw materials. While copper is found in large quantities in Eastern India and Rajaputana, iron alone is plentiful in Central and Southern India. Then we will be able to understand better the occurrence of flat copper celts of the Gangetic valley type in Maharashtra and the famous copper swords at Kallur in the Raichur District. Hence it may be suggested that the transition to iron in Central India might have taken place sometime in the middle of the 1st millennium B.C.¹ Within an area of about sixty miles to the east and west of Maheshvar, a number of older formations project out of the volcanic lava. In these two areas a large number of "old iron working" have been reported.² But we do not know the antiquity of these workings. So a metallurgical analysis of the ores as well as the tools, may throw some significant light.