India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c5: Contents

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c5

Language: English

Grammar (*Vyākaraṇa*) 1; Pāṇini’s Greatness 1; Epithets 4; Kātyāyana’s Estimate 4; Patañjali’s Tribute 5; The Dakshas, A Northern People 8; Śalātura, Birth-Place of Pāṇini 9; Tradition about Pāṇini’s Life 11; *Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa* 11; Rājaśekhara 11; Account of Yuan Chwang 12; Origin of Ancient Letters 14; Growth of Literature 14; Aindra System 15; Different Schools before Pāṇini 16; Comparative Decay of Grammatical Studies 16; Pāṇini’s Method 17; Pāṇini and Maheśvara 18; Pāṇini’s Effort 18; Extent of Pāṇini’s Work 19; Pāṇini’s Work, A Complete Digest 19; Pāṇini and Pāṭaliputra 20; The Great Synod (*Sabhā*) 20; Recognition of Learning 21; Pāṇini as A Poet 22; The *Ashṭādhyāyī*: Its Name 23; Text 24; *Gaṇa-pāṭha* 26; *Kāśikā*, Its Value for Pāṇinian Tradition 29; Stock-Examples 30; Pāṇini as A Teacher 30; Nature of the Original *Vyākhyānas* 31.

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CHAPTER II

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GEOGRAPHICAL DATA

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Section 1. Introductory 34.

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Section 2. Country 37; Geographical Horizon 37; Divisions of the Country 39;

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Section 3. Mountains, Rivers and Forests 39; Forests 41; Rivers 42; Desert Regions 46.

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Section 4. *Janapadas* 48.

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Section 5. Towns and Villages 63; Towns in the *Gaṇas* 72.

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CHAPTER III

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SOCIAL LIFE

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SECTION 1. Castes 75; Brāhmaṇa 75; Kshatriya 77; Rājanya 77; Vaiśya 77; Śudra 77; Ārya and Dāsa 79; Mixed Castes 80.

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SECTION 2. Āśramas 81; Brahmachārin 81; Period 82; Snātaka 83; House-holder 83.

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SECTION 3. Marriage 85; Social Effect of Marriage 85; Exogamy 86.

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SECTION 4. Women 87; Maiden 87; Wife 88; Mother 88; Civic Status of Women 88.

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SECTION 5. Social Formations 91; *Varṇa* and *Jāti* 91; Sagotra 92; Sapiṇḍa 92; Sanābhi 92; Jñāti 93; Saṁyukta 93; Family (*Kula*) 93; *Vaṁśa* 94; *Gṛihapati* 95; Family Relationships 95; Friend 96; Servants 97; Guests 97.

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SECTION 6. Food and Drinks (*Anna-Pāna*) 99; Classification of Foods 99; Different Foods 102; Cooking 111; Custom of feeding Domestic Servants 112; Invitations 114; Plate-Leavings 114; Drinks 114; Maireya 115; Kāpiśāyana 118; Kashāyas 119; Distillation 119.

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SECTION 7. Health and Disease 120; Humours of the Body 120; Diseases (*Roga*, *Upatāpa*) 121; Autumnal Diseases 122; List of Diseases 122; Body (*Śarīra*) 123; *Mahā-hailihila* 124.

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SECTION 8. Dress and Ornaments 125; Words for Clothing 125; Kinds of Fabrics 125; Blankets (*Kambala*) 128; *Prāvāra* 128; *Bṛihatikā* 128; Ornaments and Toilet 129.

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SECTION 9. Dwellings 133; *Śālā* 133; Houses 133; *Nishadyā* 133; *Nikāyya* and *Nikāya* 134; *Ekaśālika* 134; Materials 135.

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SECTION 10. Town-Planning 137; *Prākāra* and *Devapatha* 138; City-Gates 139; The City 141; The Village 141.

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Section 11. Furniture 144; Utensils 144; Containers 145; *Bhastrā* (IV.4.16) 145; *Vivadha* (IV.4.17), *Vīvadha* 146; Storage.

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Section 12. Conveyances 148; Chariot 148; Chariotupholstery 150; Running Footmen (*Pariskanda*) 151; A Term of Cart-Wrights 151.

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Section 13. Draught-Animals 153; *Āśvīna* 154.

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Section 14. Water Transport 155.

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Section 15. Games and Amusements 157; Sports (*Krīḍā*) 157; *Samajyā* 157; Wrestling 158; Jousts (*Praharaṇakrīḍā*) 158; The Eastern Sports 158; The Nature of Eastern Sports 158; Hunting 160; Dicing (Aksha-Dyūta) 161; Accessories of Play 162; Method of Play 162; Wager (*Glaha*) 169; Another Board Game 165.

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Section 16. Music 167; Orchestra 168; *Sammada* 168; Instruments 168.

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Section 17. Divisions of Time 170; *Akālaka Vyākaraṇa* 170; *Ahorātra* 171; Month 172; *Nakshatras* 174; Order of *Nakshatras* 176; Solstice 178; Seasons and Year 178; *Vyushṭa*, New Year’s Day 179.

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Section 18. Current Personal Names 182; Classes of Names known to Pāṇini 182; Their Special Features 182; Contraction 183; Names Derived from Stars (*Nakshatra-Nāma*) 183; Shortened Names in Use after Pāṇini 191; Resumé 192.

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CHAPTER IV

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ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

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Section 1. *Vṛitti* (Economy) 194; *Kṛishi* (Agriculture) 194; Cultivators 195; Land and Fields 195; Measurement and Survey 196; *Kshetrakara*, ‘Maker of a Field’ 197; Classification of Fields 197; Agricultural Implements 198; Agricultural Operations 199; Rainfall 203;

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Irrigation 204; Crops 204; Agricultural Produce 205; Fibrous Plants 208; Sugar Cane (*Ikshu*) 209; *Kustumburu* 209; Dye-Stuffs 209.

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Section 2. Flora 210; Forests 210; *Oshadhi* and *Vanaspati* 210; Trees 211; Grasses and Weeds 214; Flowers (*Pushpa*, IV.1.64) 215; Herbs (*Oshadhi*) 215; Fruits (*Phala*) 216; *Pīlukuṇa* 216.

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Section 3. Fauna 218; *Hariṇa* 219; *Āśvīna* 220; Feeding and Stock 222; Life-Story of a Cow 223; Bull 224; Breeds 225; Branding of Cows (*Lakshaṇa*) 226; Names of Marks 227.

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Section 4. Art and Crafts 229; Classes of Artisans 229; Names of *Śilpas* 230; *Kulāla* 230; *Takshā* (V.4.49) 230; *Dhanushkara* (III.2.21) 230; *Rajaka* 230; Miner 231; Gems 231; Weaver 231; Blanket-Makers 232; *Pāṇḍukambala* 232; Leather-Workers 234; Blacksmith (*Karmāra*) 234; Goldsmith (*Suvarṇakāra*) 234; Lifters.

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Section 5. Labour and Wages 236; Skilled and Unskilled Labour 236; Wages 236.

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Section 6. Trade and Commerce 238; *Vyavahāra* (Business) 238; Traders 238; Business Methods 239; Earnest-Money 240; Capital and Profit 240; *Vasna* 240; Trade Routes 242; *Uttarāpatha* 244; Articles of Trade 245.

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Section 7. Exchange and Barter 248; Nature of Barter Transactions 248.

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Section 8. Measures and Weights 251; Terms 251; Scale 251; Weights 252; Measures of Length 255; *Pramāṇa* 255.

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Section 9. Coinage 258; Gold Coins 258; Silver Coinage 261; Half-Kārshāpaṇa, *Ardha* and *Bhāga* 266; Quarter-Kārshāpaṇa 266; One-Eighth Kārshāpaṇa, *Māsha* 267; Copper Currency 267; *Viṁśatika* 268; Actual Specimens of *Viṁśatika* Coins 270; *Triṁśatka* 271.

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Section 10. Banking and Loans 274; Wealth 274; Money- Lending 274; Interest 275; Corporeal Interest 278; Use of a Pledge 278; *Mahā-Pravṛiddha* 278; *Āpamityaka* 279.

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CHAPTER V

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EDUCATION, LEARNING AND LITERATURE

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Section 1. Education 280; Studentship 280; The Pupil's Duties 281; Teachers 282; Disapproved Pupils 283; Naming of Students 284; Naming of Vedic Students 285; Education of Women 287; School Regulations 288; Gradation of Courses 289; Pedagogy 291; *Pārāyaṇa* (Vedic Recitations) 292; Intellectual Approach 294; *Charaṇa*, The Vedic School 295; *Parishad* 297; Working of a *Charaṇa* 298.

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Section 2. Learning 303; Agencies of Learning 303; Peripatetic Scholars (*Charaka*) 304; Authorship 305; Naming of Books 306; Plan of A Treatise 308; Theory of *Maṅgala* 310; Writing 311.

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Section 3. Literature 313; Classes of Literature 313; Works Known to Pāṇini—Vedic Texts 317; Terms Indicative of Texts 318; Vedic *Śākhās* 318; *Ṛigveda* 319; *Yajurveda* 321; *Śukla-Yajurveda* 325; *Sāmaveda* 325; *Atharvaveda* 327; Other Vedic Schools 327; *Brāhmaṇa* Literature 328; *Brāhmaṇas* of Thirty and Forty Adhyāyas 238; Older *Brāhmaṇa* Works 328; *Yājñavalka-Brāhmaṇa* 329; The Genesis of the *Śatapatha* 331; *Anubrāhmaṇa* 332; *Upanishad* 333; *Kalpa* Literature 333; Literature on Recitation 335; *Uktha* 336; *Jyotisha* 336; Philosophical Literature 337; *Bhikshu-Sūtras* 338; *Naṭa-Sūtras* 338; *Ākhyāna* and *Kāvyas* 339; *Mahābhārata* 340.

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Section 4. Grammatical Data 341; *Vyākaraṇa* 341; Previous Grammarians 341; *Pūrvāchārya-Sūtras* 342; Grammatical Terms Before Pāṇini (*Pūrvāchārya-Saṁjñās*) 344; Syllabus of Grammatical Studies 346; Pāṇini and *Loka* (Current Language) 348; Sanskrit as a Spoken Language 350; Pāṇini's Genius for Synthesis 352; Source of Meaning 353; *Jāti* and *Vyakti* 353; Onomatopoeia (*Anukaraṇa*) 354; Prefixes 354, *Dhātu* denoting *Kriyā* and *Bhāva* 354; Eternity of Words 354; *Majjhima Paṭipadā* 355.

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CHAPTER VI

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RELIGION

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Section 1. Deities 356; Post-Vedic Deities 357; *Bhakti* 358; *Mahārāja* 359; Vāsudeva Cult 359; Images 361; Demons 363.

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Section 2. Yajñas 365; The Yājñikas 365; *Yājñika* Literature 365; *Yajamāna* (Sacrificer) 366; *Āspada* 366; *Soma* 368; Names of Fires (*Agnyākhyā*, III.2.92) 369; Other Accessories 371; Priests 372; Recitation of *Mantras* 374; *Yājyā* Verses 374; *Āvāhana* 377; *Subrahmaṇyā* 378;

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Section 3. Ascetics 380; *Ayaḥśūla* 381; *Maskarin* 381; *Śramaṇa* 383.

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Section 4. Religious Beliefs and Practices 386; *Śrāddha* 386; Beliefs 387; *Dharma* 388.

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Section 5. Philosophy 389; Intellectual Ferment 389; *Jña* 389; Different Schools of Thought 389; *Lokāyata* 392; Other Philosophical Terms 393; *Indra* and *Indriya* 394; *Paraloka* (The Other World) 396.

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CHAPTER VII

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POLITY AND ADMINISTRATION

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Section 1. Monarchy 398; Titles and Terms 398; Council of Ministers (*Parishad*) 399; *Rājakṛitvā* 400; Chief Minister 400; *Ashāḍakshīṇa* (V.4.7, Secret Counsel) 402; *Rājasabhā* 403; *Mahishī* (Queen, IV.4.48) 404; Crown-Prince 405; *Raja-Kumāra* 405; Personal and Palace Staff 406; Personal Body-guards (*Rāja-pratyenas*) 406; Chamberlain (*Dauvārika*) 406; Officers to Greet the King 406; Toilet Attendants 407; *Rāja-yudhvā* 407.

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Section 2. Administration 408; Administrative Officers 408; *Yukta* 409; *Dūta* 410; *Ākranda* 411; Ideals of Administration 411; Functions of Government 412; Miscellaneous Details 412; Sources of Revenue 413; Special Taxes in Eastern India 414; Accounting 415.

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Section 3. Law and Justice 416; *Dharma* and *Nyāya* 416; Court 416; Civil Law 417; Criminal Law 418.

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Section 4. Army 419; Four-fold Division 419; Fighting Services 419; Wheel-Guards (*Pariskanda*) 420; Arms 421; Art of War 422.

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Section 5. Political Saṅgha or Gaṇa 424; *Janapada* and *Janapadins* 424; *Saṅgha* 426; The Religious *Saṅgha* 426.

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Section 6. *Gaṇa* Polity 428; *Rājanya* as the Ruling Caste in a *Gaṇa* 428; *Kula* 429; *Bhakti* 430; Party System 431; Executive 431; Voting 432; Quorum 433; State Emblems 433; *Jaya* 433.

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Section 7. *Āyudhajīvī Saṅghas* 434; Four Kinds of *Āyudhajīvins* 434; Mountaineers (*Parvatīya*) 434; *Pūga* and *Vrāta* 436; *Pūga* 437; *Vrāta* 439; *Vrātas=Vrātyas* 440; *Vrātya-stomas* 441; Four-fold *Vrātya-stomas* 441.

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Section 8. Names of Republics 443; *Āudhajīvī Saṅghas* 443; Names of Saṅghas in the Sūtras 443; *Āyudhajīvī Saṅghas* in the *Gaṇa-pāṭha* 446; Some More Republics 451; Names of Some Important Tribes 452.

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CHAPTER VIII

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CHRONOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

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Previous Views 455; Literary Argument 456; Pāṇini and the South 458; Pāṇini and *Maskarī* 458; Pāṇini and Buddhism 459; *Śravishṭhā* as the First Nakshatra 459; The Nanda Tradition 462; Political Data 465; Reference to *Yavanānī* 465; Pāṇini and the Parśus 466; The Kshudraka-Mālavas 468; Pāṇini and Kauṭilya 470; Evidence of Coins 471;