[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [General history and culture](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general) › [India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953) › c5 # India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c5: Contents India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c5 - **Language:** English ### Contents ### [c5.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.1) CHAPTER I ### [c5.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.2) PĀṆINI : HIS LIFE AND WORK ### [c5.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.3) Grammar (\*Vyākaraṇa\*) 1; Pāṇini’s Greatness 1; Epithets 4; Kātyāyana’s Estimate 4; Patañjali’s Tribute 5; The Dakshas, A Northern People 8; Śalātura, Birth-Place of Pāṇini 9; Tradition about Pāṇini’s Life 11; \*Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa\* 11; Rājaśekhara 11; Account of Yuan Chwang 12; Origin of Ancient Letters 14; Growth of Literature 14; Aindra System 15; Different Schools before Pāṇini 16; Comparative Decay of Grammatical Studies 16; Pāṇini’s Method 17; Pāṇini and Maheśvara 18; Pāṇini’s Effort 18; Extent of Pāṇini’s Work 19; Pāṇini’s Work, A Complete Digest 19; Pāṇini and Pāṭaliputra 20; The Great Synod (\*Sabhā\*) 20; Recognition of Learning 21; Pāṇini as A Poet 22; The \*Ashṭādhyāyī\*: Its Name 23; Text 24; \*Gaṇa-pāṭha\* 26; \*Kāśikā\*, Its Value for Pāṇinian Tradition 29; Stock-Examples 30; Pāṇini as A Teacher 30; Nature of the Original \*Vyākhyānas\* 31. ### [c5.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.4) CHAPTER II ### [c5.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.5) GEOGRAPHICAL DATA ### [c5.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.6) Section 1. Introductory 34. ### [c5.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.7) Section 2. Country 37; Geographical Horizon 37; Divisions of the Country 39; ### [c5.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.8) Section 3. Mountains, Rivers and Forests 39; Forests 41; Rivers 42; Desert Regions 46. ### [c5.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.9) Section 4. \*Janapadas\* 48. ### [c5.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.10) Section 5. Towns and Villages 63; Towns in the \*Gaṇas\* 72. ### [c5.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.11) CHAPTER III ### [c5.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.12) SOCIAL LIFE ### [c5.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.13) SECTION 1. Castes 75; Brāhmaṇa 75; Kshatriya 77; Rājanya 77; Vaiśya 77; Śudra 77; Ārya and Dāsa 79; Mixed Castes 80. ### [c5.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.14) SECTION 2. Āśramas 81; Brahmachārin 81; Period 82; Snātaka 83; House-holder 83. ### [c5.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.15) SECTION 3. Marriage 85; Social Effect of Marriage 85; Exogamy 86. ### [c5.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.16) SECTION 4. Women 87; Maiden 87; Wife 88; Mother 88; Civic Status of Women 88. ### [c5.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.17) SECTION 5. Social Formations 91; \*Varṇa\* and \*Jāti\* 91; Sagotra 92; Sapiṇḍa 92; Sanābhi 92; Jñāti 93; Saṁyukta 93; Family (\*Kula\*) 93; \*Vaṁśa\* 94; \*Gṛihapati\* 95; Family Relationships 95; Friend 96; Servants 97; Guests 97. ### [c5.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.18) SECTION 6. Food and Drinks (\*Anna-Pāna\*) 99; Classification of Foods 99; Different Foods 102; Cooking 111; Custom of feeding Domestic Servants 112; Invitations 114; Plate-Leavings 114; Drinks 114; Maireya 115; Kāpiśāyana 118; Kashāyas 119; Distillation 119. ### [c5.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.19) SECTION 7. Health and Disease 120; Humours of the Body 120; Diseases (\*Roga\*, \*Upatāpa\*) 121; Autumnal Diseases 122; List of Diseases 122; Body (\*Śarīra\*) 123; \*Mahā-hailihila\* 124. ### [c5.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.20) SECTION 8. Dress and Ornaments 125; Words for Clothing 125; Kinds of Fabrics 125; Blankets (\*Kambala\*) 128; \*Prāvāra\* 128; \*Bṛihatikā\* 128; Ornaments and Toilet 129. ### [c5.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.21) SECTION 9. Dwellings 133; \*Śālā\* 133; Houses 133; \*Nishadyā\* 133; \*Nikāyya\* and \*Nikāya\* 134; \*Ekaśālika\* 134; Materials 135. ### [c5.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.22) SECTION 10. Town-Planning 137; \*Prākāra\* and \*Devapatha\* 138; City-Gates 139; The City 141; The Village 141. ### [c5.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.23) Section 11. Furniture 144; Utensils 144; Containers 145; \*Bhastrā\* (IV.4.16) 145; \*Vivadha\* (IV.4.17), \*Vīvadha\* 146; Storage. ### [c5.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.24) Section 12. Conveyances 148; Chariot 148; Chariotupholstery 150; Running Footmen (\*Pariskanda\*) 151; A Term of Cart-Wrights 151. ### [c5.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.25) Section 13. Draught-Animals 153; \*Āśvīna\* 154. ### [c5.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.26) Section 14. Water Transport 155. ### [c5.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.27) Section 15. Games and Amusements 157; Sports (\*Krīḍā\*) 157; \*Samajyā\* 157; Wrestling 158; Jousts (\*Praharaṇakrīḍā\*) 158; The Eastern Sports 158; The Nature of Eastern Sports 158; Hunting 160; Dicing (Aksha-Dyūta) 161; Accessories of Play 162; Method of Play 162; Wager (\*Glaha\*) 169; Another Board Game 165. ### [c5.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.28) Section 16. Music 167; Orchestra 168; \*Sammada\* 168; Instruments 168. ### [c5.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.29) Section 17. Divisions of Time 170; \*Akālaka Vyākaraṇa\* 170; \*Ahorātra\* 171; Month 172; \*Nakshatras\* 174; Order of \*Nakshatras\* 176; Solstice 178; Seasons and Year 178; \*Vyushṭa\*, New Year’s Day 179. ### [c5.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.30) Section 18. Current Personal Names 182; Classes of Names known to Pāṇini 182; Their Special Features 182; Contraction 183; Names Derived from Stars (\*Nakshatra-Nāma\*) 183; Shortened Names in Use after Pāṇini 191; Resumé 192. ### [c5.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.31) CHAPTER IV ### [c5.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.32) ECONOMIC CONDITIONS ### [c5.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.33) Section 1. \*Vṛitti\* (Economy) 194; \*Kṛishi\* (Agriculture) 194; Cultivators 195; Land and Fields 195; Measurement and Survey 196; \*Kshetrakara\*, ‘Maker of a Field’ 197; Classification of Fields 197; Agricultural Implements 198; Agricultural Operations 199; Rainfall 203; ### [c5.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.34) Irrigation 204; Crops 204; Agricultural Produce 205; Fibrous Plants 208; Sugar Cane (\*Ikshu\*) 209; \*Kustumburu\* 209; Dye-Stuffs 209. ### [c5.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.35) Section 2. Flora 210; Forests 210; \*Oshadhi\* and \*Vanaspati\* 210; Trees 211; Grasses and Weeds 214; Flowers (\*Pushpa\*, IV.1.64) 215; Herbs (\*Oshadhi\*) 215; Fruits (\*Phala\*) 216; \*Pīlukuṇa\* 216. ### [c5.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.36) Section 3. Fauna 218; \*Hariṇa\* 219; \*Āśvīna\* 220; Feeding and Stock 222; Life-Story of a Cow 223; Bull 224; Breeds 225; Branding of Cows (\*Lakshaṇa\*) 226; Names of Marks 227. ### [c5.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.37) Section 4. Art and Crafts 229; Classes of Artisans 229; Names of \*Śilpas\* 230; \*Kulāla\* 230; \*Takshā\* (V.4.49) 230; \*Dhanushkara\* (III.2.21) 230; \*Rajaka\* 230; Miner 231; Gems 231; Weaver 231; Blanket-Makers 232; \*Pāṇḍukambala\* 232; Leather-Workers 234; Blacksmith (\*Karmāra\*) 234; Goldsmith (\*Suvarṇakāra\*) 234; Lifters. ### [c5.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.38) Section 5. Labour and Wages 236; Skilled and Unskilled Labour 236; Wages 236. ### [c5.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.39) Section 6. Trade and Commerce 238; \*Vyavahāra\* (Business) 238; Traders 238; Business Methods 239; Earnest-Money 240; Capital and Profit 240; \*Vasna\* 240; Trade Routes 242; \*Uttarāpatha\* 244; Articles of Trade 245. ### [c5.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.40) Section 7. Exchange and Barter 248; Nature of Barter Transactions 248. ### [c5.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.41) Section 8. Measures and Weights 251; Terms 251; Scale 251; Weights 252; Measures of Length 255; \*Pramāṇa\* 255. ### [c5.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.42) Section 9. Coinage 258; Gold Coins 258; Silver Coinage 261; Half-Kārshāpaṇa, \*Ardha\* and \*Bhāga\* 266; Quarter-Kārshāpaṇa 266; One-Eighth Kārshāpaṇa, \*Māsha\* 267; Copper Currency 267; \*Viṁśatika\* 268; Actual Specimens of \*Viṁśatika\* Coins 270; \*Triṁśatka\* 271. ### [c5.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.43) Section 10. Banking and Loans 274; Wealth 274; Money- Lending 274; Interest 275; Corporeal Interest 278; Use of a Pledge 278; \*Mahā-Pravṛiddha\* 278; \*Āpamityaka\* 279. ### [c5.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.44) CHAPTER V ### [c5.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.45) EDUCATION, LEARNING AND LITERATURE ### [c5.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.46) Section 1. Education 280; Studentship 280; The Pupil's Duties 281; Teachers 282; Disapproved Pupils 283; Naming of Students 284; Naming of Vedic Students 285; Education of Women 287; School Regulations 288; Gradation of Courses 289; Pedagogy 291; \*Pārāyaṇa\* (Vedic Recitations) 292; Intellectual Approach 294; \*Charaṇa\*, The Vedic School 295; \*Parishad\* 297; Working of a \*Charaṇa\* 298. ### [c5.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.47) Section 2. Learning 303; Agencies of Learning 303; Peripatetic Scholars (\*Charaka\*) 304; Authorship 305; Naming of Books 306; Plan of A Treatise 308; Theory of \*Maṅgala\* 310; Writing 311. ### [c5.48](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.48) Section 3. Literature 313; Classes of Literature 313; Works Known to Pāṇini—Vedic Texts 317; Terms Indicative of Texts 318; Vedic \*Śākhās\* 318; \*Ṛigveda\* 319; \*Yajurveda\* 321; \*Śukla-Yajurveda\* 325; \*Sāmaveda\* 325; \*Atharvaveda\* 327; Other Vedic Schools 327; \*Brāhmaṇa\* Literature 328; \*Brāhmaṇas\* of Thirty and Forty Adhyāyas 238; Older \*Brāhmaṇa\* Works 328; \*Yājñavalka-Brāhmaṇa\* 329; The Genesis of the \*Śatapatha\* 331; \*Anubrāhmaṇa\* 332; \*Upanishad\* 333; \*Kalpa\* Literature 333; Literature on Recitation 335; \*Uktha\* 336; \*Jyotisha\* 336; Philosophical Literature 337; \*Bhikshu-Sūtras\* 338; \*Naṭa-Sūtras\* 338; \*Ākhyāna\* and \*Kāvyas\* 339; \*Mahābhārata\* 340. ### [c5.49](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.49) Section 4. Grammatical Data 341; \*Vyākaraṇa\* 341; Previous Grammarians 341; \*Pūrvāchārya-Sūtras\* 342; Grammatical Terms Before Pāṇini (\*Pūrvāchārya-Saṁjñās\*) 344; Syllabus of Grammatical Studies 346; Pāṇini and \*Loka\* (Current Language) 348; Sanskrit as a Spoken Language 350; Pāṇini's Genius for Synthesis 352; Source of Meaning 353; \*Jāti\* and \*Vyakti\* 353; Onomatopoeia (\*Anukaraṇa\*) 354; Prefixes 354, \*Dhātu\* denoting \*Kriyā\* and \*Bhāva\* 354; Eternity of Words 354; \*Majjhima Paṭipadā\* 355. ### [c5.50](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.50) CHAPTER VI ### [c5.51](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.51) RELIGION ### [c5.52](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.52) Section 1. Deities 356; Post-Vedic Deities 357; \*Bhakti\* 358; \*Mahārāja\* 359; Vāsudeva Cult 359; Images 361; Demons 363. ### [c5.53](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.53) Section 2. Yajñas 365; The Yājñikas 365; \*Yājñika\* Literature 365; \*Yajamāna\* (Sacrificer) 366; \*Āspada\* 366; \*Soma\* 368; Names of Fires (\*Agnyākhyā\*, III.2.92) 369; Other Accessories 371; Priests 372; Recitation of \*Mantras\* 374; \*Yājyā\* Verses 374; \*Āvāhana\* 377; \*Subrahmaṇyā\* 378; ### [c5.54](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.54) Section 3. Ascetics 380; \*Ayaḥśūla\* 381; \*Maskarin\* 381; \*Śramaṇa\* 383. ### [c5.55](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.55) Section 4. Religious Beliefs and Practices 386; \*Śrāddha\* 386; Beliefs 387; \*Dharma\* 388. ### [c5.56](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.56) Section 5. Philosophy 389; Intellectual Ferment 389; \*Jña\* 389; Different Schools of Thought 389; \*Lokāyata\* 392; Other Philosophical Terms 393; \*Indra\* and \*Indriya\* 394; \*Paraloka\* (The Other World) 396. ### [c5.57](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.57) CHAPTER VII ### [c5.58](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.58) POLITY AND ADMINISTRATION ### [c5.59](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.59) Section 1. Monarchy 398; Titles and Terms 398; Council of Ministers (\*Parishad\*) 399; \*Rājakṛitvā\* 400; Chief Minister 400; \*Ashāḍakshīṇa\* (V.4.7, Secret Counsel) 402; \*Rājasabhā\* 403; \*Mahishī\* (Queen, IV.4.48) 404; Crown-Prince 405; \*Raja-Kumāra\* 405; Personal and Palace Staff 406; Personal Body-guards (\*Rāja-pratyenas\*) 406; Chamberlain (\*Dauvārika\*) 406; Officers to Greet the King 406; Toilet Attendants 407; \*Rāja-yudhvā\* 407. ### [c5.60](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.60) Section 2. Administration 408; Administrative Officers 408; \*Yukta\* 409; \*Dūta\* 410; \*Ākranda\* 411; Ideals of Administration 411; Functions of Government 412; Miscellaneous Details 412; Sources of Revenue 413; Special Taxes in Eastern India 414; Accounting 415. ### [c5.61](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.61) Section 3. Law and Justice 416; \*Dharma\* and \*Nyāya\* 416; Court 416; Civil Law 417; Criminal Law 418. ### [c5.62](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.62) Section 4. Army 419; Four-fold Division 419; Fighting Services 419; Wheel-Guards (\*Pariskanda\*) 420; Arms 421; Art of War 422. ### [c5.63](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.63) Section 5. Political Saṅgha or Gaṇa 424; \*Janapada\* and \*Janapadins\* 424; \*Saṅgha\* 426; The Religious \*Saṅgha\* 426. ### [c5.64](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.64) Section 6. \*Gaṇa\* Polity 428; \*Rājanya\* as the Ruling Caste in a \*Gaṇa\* 428; \*Kula\* 429; \*Bhakti\* 430; Party System 431; Executive 431; Voting 432; Quorum 433; State Emblems 433; \*Jaya\* 433. ### [c5.65](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.65) Section 7. \*Āyudhajīvī Saṅghas\* 434; Four Kinds of \*Āyudhajīvins\* 434; Mountaineers (\*Parvatīya\*) 434; \*Pūga\* and \*Vrāta\* 436; \*Pūga\* 437; \*Vrāta\* 439; \*Vrātas=Vrātyas\* 440; \*Vrātya-stomas\* 441; Four-fold \*Vrātya-stomas\* 441. ### [c5.66](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.66) Section 8. Names of Republics 443; \*Āudhajīvī Saṅghas\* 443; Names of Saṅghas in the Sūtras 443; \*Āyudhajīvī Saṅghas\* in the \*Gaṇa-pāṭha\* 446; Some More Republics 451; Names of Some Important Tribes 452. ### [c5.67](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.67) CHAPTER VIII ### [c5.68](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.68) CHRONOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS ### [c5.69](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.69) Previous Views 455; Literary Argument 456; Pāṇini and the South 458; Pāṇini and \*Maskarī\* 458; Pāṇini and Buddhism 459; \*Śravishṭhā\* as the First Nakshatra 459; The Nanda Tradition 462; Political Data 465; Reference to \*Yavanānī\* 465; Pāṇini and the Parśus 466; The Kshudraka-Mālavas 468; Pāṇini and Kauṭilya 470; Evidence of Coins 471; ### [c5.70](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.70) Personal Names 473; Pāṇini and the \*Jātakas\* 473; Pāṇini and the \*Madhyama-patha\* 474; Summary 474. ### [c5.71](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.71) APPENDIX ### [c5.72](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.72) | I. | Janapada. | 477—491 | | II. | Place-Names.∗ | 492—512 | | | Index | 515—549 | ### [c5.73](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.73) ∗ Appendix III on Gotras with a critical text of their \*Gaṇa-pāṭha\* had to be held back for treatment as a separate monograph. ### [c5.74](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.74) MAPS ### [c5.75](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.75) 1. North-West India in Pāṇini's Time. 2. Panjab in Pāṇini's Time. 3. India in Pāṇini's Time. ### [c5.76](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.76) PLATE ### [c5.77](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5.77) Coins in Pāṇini. --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c5) · Pramāṇa