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India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c8.s1: Section 1. Caste

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c8.s1

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Section 1. Caste

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The *Ashṭādhyāyī* is full of interesting details regarding the social life, manners and customs of its times. Pāṇini, as we have seen, was acquainted with a large part of India including Gandhāra, Vāhīka, Sindhu, Sauvīra, and the Prāchya country or eastern India. His master-mind did not fail to observe minutely the characteristics of social and economic life in these different regions.

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Society in his time was based on Varṇāśramadharma, i.e. on Castes and Āśramas or stages into which life was divided.

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Pāṇini twice uses the Vedic term *Varṇa* for caste (*Dharma-śīla-varṇāchcha*, V.2.132; VI.3. 84) which is more often referred to by the specific term *Jāti* adopted in later legal texts (II.1.63; VI.3.41).

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The term *Jāti* seems to have a more comprehensive sense so as to include both *gotra* and *charaṇa* indicative of natural and cultural lineage as implied in *sūtra* II.1.63 (*Katara-katamau jāti-paripraśne*). Patañjali explains *jāti* in this extended sense (*gotraṁ cha charaṇaiḥ saha*, IV.1.63), citing as its examples the Kaṭha and Kalāpa *charaṇas* (cf. also *sūtra* V.3.93). Evidently the *gotras* and *charaṇas* were fast developing their separate entity as *jātis*.

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*BRĀHMAṆA.* The Brāhmaṇas formed the highest caste. There were four principal castes which Kātyāyana mentions as *Chāturvarṇya* (V.1.124). These were to be mentioned in their order of status, as pointed out definitely by Kātyāyana in a *vārttika* on Pāṇini II.2.34 (*varṇānām ānupūrvyeṇa pūrva-nipātaḥ*), as Brāhmaṇa-Kshattriya-Viṭ-Śūdrāḥ (*Bhāshya*, I. 436). Thus the Brāhmaṇa was the highest caste.

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Pāṇini uses the Vedic term Brahman (V.1.7) and also Brāhmaṇa for the caste (*Brāhmo' jātau*, VI.4.171). He seems to find a distinction between them taking the former in a cultural reference as shown in the derivative *brahmaṇya* (*Brahmaṇe hitam*) to indicate what appertains to the spiritual welfare of a Brāhmaṇa (*Brāhmaṇebhyo hitam*, *Bhāshya*, V.1.7; II.339), and reserving the term Brāhmaṇa for the caste based on birth (son of a Brahman). This point is also explained by Patañjali stating that ‘although the two terms Brahman and Brāhmaṇa are synonymous (*samān-ārthau etau . . . Brahman-śabdo Brāhmaṇa-śabdaścha*, II.339), yet the affix *yat* is added only to Brahman to have the form *brahmaṇya*.

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Pāṇini in a *sūtra* V.1.124 refers to the *bhāva* (nature) and *karma* (conduct) which should characterise a Brāhmaṇa (*Guṇavachana-Brāhmaṇādibhyaḥ karmaṇi cha*). These are indicated in the derivative expression *Brāhmaṇya*. Kātyāyana applies this rule to the four castes collectively to indicate the norm and the duties for which the system stands.

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*Provincial Distinctions amongst Brāhmaṇas* (JĀNAPADĀKHYĀ). Pāṇini knows of the practice of the Brāhmaṇas being named after the localities (*janapada*) to which they belonged by birth (V.4.104, *Brahmaṇo jānapadākhyāyām*), of which the *Kāśikā* cites the following examples: *Avanti-Brahmaḥ* and *Surāshṭra-Brahmaḥ*, i.e. a Brāhmaṇa of Avanti *janapada*, (modern Malwa), and a Brāhmaṇa of Surāshṭra or Kathiawar. Such names are the precursors of the later terms like Kānyakubja, Sārasvata, Mahārāshṭra and Gurjara Brāhmaṇas.

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A degraded Brāhmaṇa was called *ku-Brahmaḥ* (V.4.105), while a Brāhmaṇa pre-eminent in his duties (*dharma*) *mahā-Brahmaḥ* (V.4.105). The Pāli texts take Mahā-Brahmā to mean a super-Brāhmaṇa, one with realised soul. The *Mahānārada-kassapa Jātaka* speaks of Bodhisattva Nārada as being the Mahā-Brahmā (Great Brahmā) at a particular epoch (*Jāt.* VI.242). The *Mātaṅga Jātaka* explicitly refers to the superior position of a Mahā-Brahmā (*Jāt.* IV.377; cf. also *Jāt.* No. 254).

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KSHATRIYA. Pāṇini mentions the Kshatriya caste in connection with *gotras, janapadas* and *saṅghas*. For example the Kuru *gotra* occurred both amongst Brāhmaṇas (IV.1.151) and Kshatriyas (IV.1.172). If the father was a Brāhmaṇa, he and his young (*yuvan*) son were both called Kauravya, but if a Kshatriya they would be Kauravya and Kauravyāyaṇi (II.4. 58, *Kāśikā*). Andhaka and Vṛishṇi were Kshatriya *gotras*. As to Kshatriyas associated with the *janapadas*, they as original founders gave their name to the region where they settled down (*Janapada-śabdāt kshatriyād añ*, IV.1.168), the ruling families being designated as *janapadins* (IV.3.100); e.g. Pañchāla country named after the Pañchāla Kshatriyas; similarly Dardistan from Darads, Johiyāwār (Bahawalpur) from Yaudheyas, Mālva (in Ferozpur-Ludhiana) from ancient Mālavas (now called Malavais). Pāṇini specially mentions the Vāhīka *saṅghas* (V.3.114), some dominated by Brāhmaṇas as ruling caste (Gopālavas), others by Rājanyas, and called Rājanyaka (IV.2.53), most likely referring to the Rāṇas of the Hill-States. The majority were Kshatriya *saṅghas*, as Kshudrakas, Malavas (V.3.114, *Kāśikā*), Vṛikas (V.3.115), Yaudheyas (V.3.117). Distinguished Kshatriya heroes had become objects of religious *bhakti* (IV.3.99) before Pāṇini's time, referring to the emergence of a popular cult of hero-worship.

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*RĀJANYA*—In the Saṁhitās *Rājanya* is a synonymous term with Kshatriya. Pāṇini has retained the old sense of the word in *sūtra* IV.2.39, whereas he has used it in a new constitutional significance in *sūtra* VI. 2. 34 (*Rājanya-bahuvachana-dvandve Andhaka-Vṛishṇishu*), where the *Kāśikā* defines *rājanya* as a member of such families in a Kshatriya tribe as were consecrated to rulership (*abhishikta-vaṁśya kshatriya*).

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VAIŚYA. The Vaiśyas were given the title *arya* to indicate their social status (*Aryaḥ svāmi-vaiśyayoḥ*, III.1.103).

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ŚŪDRA—Pāṇini refers to some Śūdras living within the pale of the Aryan society (*aniravasita*, II.4.10), implying that there were other Śūdras, probably aboriginal peoples, who were yet to be assimilated in the Aryan society.

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Patañjali makes clear the social status of the Śūdras in his time. Firstly, there were Śūdras who were not excluded from Āryāvarta but were living within its social system. Secondly, there was another class of Śūdras who were living outside Āryāvarta and its society. He cites as examples (1) Kishkindha-Gabdikam (2) Śaka-Yavanam and (3) Saurya-Krauñcham. Of these Kishkindhā may be identified with Pāli Khukhundo in Gorakhpore, Gabdikā with the Gaddis of Chambā, who were deemed as living outside the limits of Āryāvarta, Saurya with Soreyya or Soron in Etah district and Krauñcha with the later Krauñcha-dvāra somewhere in Garhwal. The Śakas and the Yavanas who are termed Śūdras were not yet parts of the Aryan society and were outside Āryāvarta in Patañjali's time. The Aryan society was at pains to repel the invasion of the Yavanas (Greeks under the leadership of Demetrius and Menander) and this hostility must have emphasized the cleavage between them. The Śakas geographically were still living outside the borders of India in the second century B.C. But in the first century B.C. we find Śaka settlements springing up at Takshaśilā, Mathurā and Ujjayinī.

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Thirdly, there were Śūdras who had separate settlements of their own within the Aryan colonies (*ārya-nivāsa*), such as a *grāma* (village), a *ghosha* (cattle ranch), a *nagara* (town) or a *saṁvāha* (caravan camp). Examples of such Śūdras are Mṛitapas (undertakers), Chāṇḍālas, who were of the lowest grades. Fourthly, there was another class of Śūdras who were entrusted with some of the work connected with *yajñas* or sacrifices as carpenters (*takshā*), metal-workers (*ayaskāra*), washermen (*rajaka*) and weavers (*tantuvāya*). There were also Śūdra untouchables who had to take their food in their own utensils and not in those of the household, while there were others who were not subject to this restriction as being more closely associated with the household (*yair-bhukte pātram saṁskāreṇa śudhyati*, II.4.10; I.475).

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ĀRYA AND DĀSA. Pāṇini applies the epithet Ārya to a Brāhmaṇa to denote the king's chief counsellor (*Ārya-Brāhmaṇa*) and to Kumāra to denote the Crown-Prince (*Ārya-Kumāra*, VI.2.58).

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The use of the term Ārya in the expression *Ārya-kṛita* in *sūtra*, IV.1.30, (feminine *Āryakṛitī*, terms which were also Vedic words) had a specific meaning in current speech (*saṁjñā*). The meaning of these terms is best explained by Kauṭilya (Dāsakalpa chapter). Kauṭilya takes Ārya to mean a free man as opposed to *Dāsa* who had lost his freedom, e.g. "The offspring of a man who has sold himself off as a slave shall be an Ārya; on paying the value (for which one is enslaved) a slave shall regain his Āryahood' (*Āryatava*, *Āryabhāva*, *Artha*. Text, III.13). The regulations contained in that chapter aim at humanising the institution of *dāsya* and restoring to the *dāsas* the privileges of an Ārya or 'free citizen.' The linguistic form *Āryakṛita* (i.e. Ārya with the root *kṛi*) is also implied in Kauṭilya's expression, *Dāsamanurūpeṇa nishkrayeṇ-Āryamakurvato dvādaśa paṇo daṇḍaḥ*, *i.e.*, '12 *paṇas* is the fine for not making a slave a freeman (Ārya) even after receiving the proper ransom.' The feminine form *Āryakṛitī* would denote the woman similarly made free, or her daughter who had obtained the status of an '*adāsa*' or '*Ārya*' either through payment of ransom or birth. (Cf. *Artha*. Text, III.13, *Mātā bhrātā bhaginī chāsyā adāsāḥ syuḥ*). Pāṇini uses *dāsī-bhāra* in *sūtra* VI.2.42, as a word with specific meaning (*saṁjñā*). The *Kāśikā* explains it as *dāsyā bhāraḥ*, i.e. the burden of a *dāsī* to be borne (by her master). Kauṭilya states, 'If a pregnant female slave is sold or pledged without any provision for her confinement, her master is punishable.' (*Artha*. Trans. p. 207). This probably explains the nature of the burden implied in the term *dāsī-bhāra* of Pāṇini.

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MIXED *CASTES*—Pāṇini uses the terms *anuloma* and *pratiloma* (V.4.75) which are well-known in later Smṛiti texts. The *Ashṭādhyāyī* mentions the names *Ambashṭha* and *Āmbashṭha* (VIII.3.97). These were a republican people in the Panjab. They are taken to be a mixed caste in the Smṛitis, as the offspring of a Brāhmaṇa husband and a Vaiśya wife. Pāṇini also knows of a class of people called *udakahāra* (or *udahāra*, VI.3.60), 'drawer of water,' who may be taken as a caste (Hindi *kahāra*). It may be noted that Kātyāyana knows of a special caste (*jāti*) called *mahāśūdra*, with its female *mahāśūdrī*. The *Kāśikā* explains the term to mean the Ābhīras regarded as higher Śūdras.

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